Environmental diagnosis: Integrating biodiversity conservation in management of Natura 2000 forest spaces

The conservation of biodiversity in Europe is defined by Directive 92/43/EEC – commonly known as the Habitats Directive – relating to the conservation of natural habitats and of wild flora and fauna. This Directive established the creation of an ecological network of European protected areas – the Natura 2000 network – , and also recognised the need to manage these areas to maintain their “favourable conservation status”.This paper proposes a methodology which enables the conservation of biodiversity to be integrated into the management of Natura 2000 forest spaces. The methodology comprises an “environmental diagnosis” in three phases. The first phase evaluates the current conservation status of habitats using the following criteria: vital functions; floristic richness; forest structure; area occupied by the habitat; and recovery capacity. The second phase assesses the fragility of the space to determine the degree of vulnerability of habitats. This involves evaluating the fire hazard, erosion hazard, and the fragility of the vegetation. The last phase combines the two previous ones to generate management areas (optimum, intermediate or unfavourable) and to prioritise management actions.This methodology was applied in a protected forest area in the Natura 2000 network, located in Avila (Spain). Different management areas were generated for biodiversity conservation, and each habitat was associated to one of them. Finally, actions were prioritised and designed to raise the habitats to a “favourable conservation status”.     

Livestock management in Natura 2000: A case study in a Quercus pyrenaica neglected coppice forest

Due to the European Habitats Directive, Quercus pyrenaica habitat has been protected within the Natura 2000 network for biodiversity conservation. Many of these habitats have been widely managed as coppice forest with silvopastoral use throughout Spain. Currently, in many of these oak coppices fuelwood extraction is neglected and grazing is the main use. Management plans required in the Directive should consider all these circumstances and offer an integrated approach to ensure a favourable conservation status of these habitats. We propose a three phase methodology to assess the ability of the habitat to support a given livestock density annually and seasonally, and to evaluate some of the physical impacts of grazing animals on the physical structure and development of the habitat. We applied the methodology to a neglected coppice forest that supports livestock at different periods. Results show that there is a possible compatibility between annual livestock food requirements and pasture production. Current grazing periods seem to fit the seasonal pasture productivity. Negative impacts were assessed on oak shrubland stands due to intense browsing and on low polewood owing to the high density of broken trees. On more developed stands, positive livestock impact was due to the control of the regrowth of coppice shoots. Acorn absence is a result of the previous coppice management. This negative impact may endanger long-term viability of Q. pyrenaica in the study area. We propose a process of conversion into high forest through a sequence of thinning to start sexual regeneration. In this proposal, livestock have an important role to ensure biodiversity, control the regrowth of coppice shoots and thinning low polewood stands.     

Poor effectiveness of Natura 2000 beech forests in protecting forest-dwelling bats

With the establishment of the Natura 2000 (N2000) network, the European Union intends to develop strategies to conserve Europe's threatened habitats and species, including bats. Forest-dwelling bats are highly reliant on forest structures, such as snags and hollow trees, which the bats need as roosts. The decrease in such forest microhabitats significantly affects the habitat use and, therefore, the activity in forests. To determine whether N2000 beech forests under active timber production offer better habitats for bats compared to commercially used non-N2000 forests, we measured the bat activity and assessed the potential roosts in trees and snags in eleven pairs of stands. All survey stands represented mesotrophic beech forests (Fagus sylvatica L.) of the N2000 habitat type 9130 (Asperulo-Fagetum) in three European Biogeographic Regions. The activity of all bat species, the activity of priority N2000 species, the species number, the number of trees with roosts and the snag volume did not differ significantly between the N2000 and non-N2000 stands. We conclude that the current management of the N2000 beech forests is almost identical to that of non-N2000 commercial forests, and thus, the N2000 status has not led to an increase of bat-relevant habitat variables yet. Consequently, additional efforts beyond the administrative assignment of N2000 areas are required to build and ensure an ecologically effective and sustainable network of beech forests in Europe, including increasing important forest requirements for bats, such as roosts and snags.     

LiDAR as a rapid tool to predict forest habitat types in Natura 2000 networks

Management strategies for the conservation of biodiversity can be developed only with precise information on the spatial distribution of organisms on relevant, mostly regional, spatial scales. Current surrogates for approximating the distribution of biodiversity are habitats mapped within a number of national and international frameworks (e.g., Natura 2000), even though conventional habitat mapping is time consuming and requires well-trained personnel. Here we evaluated the use of light detection and ranging (LiDAR) to map forest habitat types to simplify the process. We used available data of habitat types for the Bavarian Forest National Park as a basis to predict habitat types with LiDAR-derived variables. Furthermore, we compared these results with predictions based on extensive ground-based climate, soil and vegetation data. Using linear and flexible discriminant analyses, we found that LiDAR is able to predict forest habitat types with the same overall accuracy as the extensive ground data for climate, soil and vegetation composition. Subtle differences in the vegetation structure between habitat types, particularly in the vertical and horizontal vegetation profiles, were captured by LiDAR. These differences in the physiognomy were in part caused by changes in altitude, which also influence tree species composition. We propose that the most-efficient way to identify forest habitat types according Natura 2000 is to combine remote-sensing LiDAR data with well-directed field surveys.     

Bridging the gap between the Natura 2000 regional conservation status and local conservation objectives

Natura 2000 targets the sustainable conservation of Europe's biodiversity. An important cornerstone of Natura 2000 is the Habitats Directive, which is currently implemented across European member states. However, straightforward implementation is not obvious since the favourable conservation status of habitats and species needs to be achieved at the member state level, while conservation objectives need to be formulated at the protected site level. To bridge this gap, we propose to start from regional conservation objectives before site level objectives are formulated. These regional conservation objectives have the advantage of providing a framework according to which conservation objectives can be allocated both within and outside the protected sites of the Natura 2000 network. Especially since they all contribute to the national or regional conservation status. Recently, Flanders (northern Belgium) has adopted this approach and has quantified conservation objectives at the regional scale. As the current regional conservation status of habitats and species is mostly unfavourable, regional conservation objectives entail a drastic increase in area (42%) for habitats, and active conservation measures for 78% of the species. We are convinced that the method outlined here, may substantially contribute to a helpful discussion about implementing and streamlining Natura 2000 across European member states.     

Sustainable use of tropical forests by reduced-impact logging in Deramakot Forest Reserve,Sabah, Malaysia

In pursuance of economic growth and development, logging has exhausted the natural timber resource in the tropical rainforest of Sabah, Malaysia. Realizing the forest depletion, the Sabah Forestry Department, with technical support from the German Agency for Technical Cooperation, begun developing a management system with the intent of managing all commercial forest reserves in a way that mimics natural processes for sustainable production of low volume, high quality, and high priced timber products in 1989. As dictated by a forest management plan based on forest zoning, about 51,000 ha of the entire area is set aside for log production and 4,000 ha for conservation in Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah, Malaysia. This Forest Management Plan has served as the blueprint for operational work and biodiversity conservation in Deramakot to the present. A strict protection area is set aside for biodiversity conservation within the reserve. A reduced-impact logging system is being employed for harvesting with minimal impacts on the physical environment. Deramakot Forest Reserve was certified as “well managed” by an international certification body, the Forest Stewardship Council, in 1997 and is the first natural forest reserve in Southeast Asia managed in accordance with sustainable forestry principles. In addition to providing a "green premium," certification provides easier market access, evidence of legality, multi-stakeholder participation, conservation of biodiversity and best forest management practices, particularly reduced-impact logging techniques. Deramakot Forest Reserve is the flagship of the Sabah Forestry Department and serves as a symbol of what can be achieved with political support and institutional commitment.     

Plantations of exotic tree species in Britain: irrelevant for biodiversity or novel habitat for native species?

Novel or emergent ecosystems arising from human action present both threats and opportunities for biodiversity. It has been suggested that exotic species can “facilitate” or “inhibit” native biodiversity through habitat modification. In Britain, there is a discussion over the contribution to biodiversity of plantations of exotic conifer species as these are commonly thought to have little relevancy as a habitat for native biodiversity. To address this we compared the species richness of a range of different taxonomic groups (lichens, bryophytes, fungi, vascular plants, invertebrates and songbirds) in exotic and native forest stands of differing structural stages in northern and southern Britain. In terms of overall native species-richness there was no significant difference between the exotic and the native stands. In the north, six species groups showed higher values in the exotic Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) stands with the remaining six showing higher values in the native Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) stands. Most notably, lichen species richness was much lower in the exotic stands compared to the native stands, whereas bryophyte and fungal species richness was proportionately higher in the exotic stands. In the south, five species groups (all invertebrate taxa) showed higher species richness in exotic Norway spruce (Picea abies) stands compared to native oak (Quercus robur) stands. Five species groups had higher species-richness in the oak stands, in particular lichens and fungi. It is concluded that emergent ecosystems of exotic conifer species are not irrelevant to biodiversity. Where already well-established they can provide habitat for native species particularly if native woodland is scarce and biodiversity restoration is an immediate priority.     

Biodiversity conservation and systemic silviculture: Concepts and applications

Abstract

Classic silviculture and management, with the aim of predicting regeneration rate and producing a constant yield of merchantable wood, have simplified many forests, often transforming natural forests into plantations or coppices. To conserve forest complexity and biodiversity, silviculture and forest management should change the reference paradigm and consider forest ecosystems as complex biological systems characterized by the inherent unpredictability of their trajectories in a continuously changing environment. The new Management Plan for the Vallombrosa Forest (Florence, Italy), a State Nature Reserve and a Natura 2000 Site, is based on this approach. The aim is the gradual evolution of the pure silver fir stands toward mixed stands with a complex structure. Most of the species considered by Natura 2000 depend on an increase of structural diversity at different space and time scales. The management approach proposed by the new plan is coherent with this aim and thus biodiversity conservation is not in conflict with forest management but is, instead, a direct consequence of the systemic approach.     

Old rural parks support higher biodiversity than forest remnants

One of the main challenges in biodiversity conservation is to curb a further degradation and loss of high-quality habitats. In agricultural matrix landscapes, the detection of alternative habitats for habitat specialists may be a solution. Historic old parks or landscape gardens around manor houses and castles are cultural heritage of nobles, but their value in harbouring biodiversity is poorly acknowledged. Therefore we evaluated the potential of old rural parks to serve as a habitat for nemoral forest species. We recorded stand structure and the presence of forest biodiversity indicators in 74 closed-canopy stands of historic parks and compared them with 93 neighbouring mature forest remnants on ancient forest land. We estimated the importance of stand structure in relation to habitat type on biodiversity indicators. Finally we suggest single-value indicator-complexes for the cost-efficient assessment of the conservation value of forests and forest-like habitats. Park stands outclassed reference forests in several individual structural characteristics, and in combined indicators of habitat quality and biodiversity. Forests had higher estimates for the combined indicator of dead wood, but large-diameter dead wood types were more abundant in parks. Woodpeckers, several old-growth indicator epiphytes and forest herbs had successfully become established in planted forest-like park fragments. Old rural parks resemble high-conservation-value forests more than the best preserved contemporary forest remnants. After the century needed to overcome immigration delay, old parks do provide a refugium for temperate deciduous forest species. Consequently, biodiversity-targeted management should retain and enhance old-growth attributes in forests and on the peripheries of parks: e.g. preserving old trees to provide service for epiphytes, hollow trees and an understorey mosaic for birds and bats; dead wood elements for saproxylic insects and fungi; limited mowing frequency and increased cutting height for forest herbs. Forestry should enhance the recovery of mixed deciduous stands and avoid conifer plantations.     

Taxonomic and conservation status of a newly discovered giant landsnail from Mount Augustus,New Zealand

The Rhytidae (Mollusca; Gastropoda; Pulmonata) are a group of large carnivorous land snails distributed in the southern hemisphere, with a particularly rich fauna in New Zealand. The endemic genus Powelliphanta consists of at least 10 species and many more recognised subspecies, most of which are restricted to the western margin of South Island, New Zealand. Powelliphanta taxa tend to have restricted ecological and spatial ranges among the mountains of this region, with some species being limited to lowland forest and others to habitats at or above the treeline. Among recent discoveries is a population of snails occupying habitat on and around a peak called Mt Augustus, which is situated at the edge of a large and economically important coalfield. Since recognition of the potential biological significance of the Mt Augustus snails in 2004, almost all of their habitat has been destroyed by opencast mining revealing a direct conflict between economic and biodiversity prioritisation. Our analysis of mtDNA sequence data indicate Powelliphanta “Augustus” is a distinctive evolutionary lineage, more closely related to a nearby lowland species Powelliphanta lignaria than the spatial and ecological neighbour Powelliphanta patrickensis. Powelliphanta “Augustus” appears to be a specialised local endemic species. Despite a growing international awareness of the importance of biodiversity conservation, the demand for foreign earnings continues to take priority over the protection of our biota.     

Habitat type richness associations with environmental variables: a case study in the Greek Natura 2000 aquatic ecosystems

We investigated the potential associations of habitat type richness patterns with a series of environmental variables in 61 protected aquatic ecosystems of the Greek Natura 2000 network. Habitat type classification followed the Natura 2000 classification scheme. Habitat type richness was measured as the number of different habitat types in an area. To overcome a potential area effect in quantifying habitat type richness, we applied the “moving window” technique. The environmental variables were selected to account for some of the major threats to biodiversity, such as fragmentation, habitat loss and climate change. We run GLMs to associate habitat type richness with different combinations of climatic, spatial and topographic variables. Habitat type richness seemed to significantly associate with climatic variables, more than spatial or topographic ones. In particular, for the climatic ones, the importance of precipitation surpassed that of temperature and especially the precipitation of the wettest and driest month had a limiting contribution to richness unlike average climate estimators. Moreover, the landscape’s latitude and longitude and fragmentation were significantly associated to richness. Our findings are in accordance to those observed in recent literature at lower (i.e. species) levels of ecological organization, fact showing that large-scale phenomena (such as climate change) can also be observed at the habitat type level, at least in our case. Thus, following the context of the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC), that habitat types and not solely species of community interest should be protected and restored, this study serves as a first step towards investigating habitat type richness patterns.     

Are there habitats that contribute best to plant species diversity in coastal dunes?

The following paper describes patterns of diversity across major habitat types in a relatively well preserved coastal dune system in central Italy. The research addresses the following questions: (a) whether different habitats defined on the base of a land cover map support similar levels of biodiversity in terms of vascular flora richness and number of rare and endangered species, and (b) how each habitat contributes to the total species diversity of the coastal environment. A random stratified sampling approach based on a detailed land cover map was applied to construct rarefaction curves for each habitat type and to estimate total species richness. In addition, the number of exclusive, rare and endangered species was calculated for each habitat type. Results highlight the importance of the coastal dune zonation (embryo-dune, main dune, transition and stabilized dune) in species conservation because they harbour progressively higher species richness. However, differences among these habitats were not significant, so no particular species rich “hotspots” could be evidenced. On the contrary, rarefaction curves show that the upper beach (strand) habitat sustains significantly smaller number of species, but surprisingly, it shows the highest rarity values and highest proportion of endangered species. Therefore, for the establishment of successful biodiversity conservation programs in these coastal environments, it is imperative not only to conserve biologically rich hotspots but also to include species poor habitats containing endangered or unique elements. Thus, the complete coastal vegetation mosaic including all coastal habitats is important to adequately characterize the plant species diversity of coastal dune ecosystems.     

Plant community ecology of Pinus sylvestris, an extirpated species reintroduced to Ireland

Plantation forests can make a significant contribution to the conservation of native biodiversity, especially where native forest cover is low. Ireland is used as a case study to explore the contribution to biodiversity made by stands of Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine), a reintroduced species. Despite its disputed native status, P. sylvestris is being widely planted in semi-natural habitats in Ireland. The associated vegetation communities have not previously been described and their conservation value is unknown. Baseline information is needed to inform conservation and forest management strategies. Botanical surveys were carried out at 20 plots of P. sylvestris-dominated woodland and scrub throughout the Republic of Ireland. Vegetation, structural and environmental data were recorded. Data were analysed using non-parametric and multivariate statistical techniques and a synoptic table was prepared. P. sylvestris was found to be a non-specialist in terms of its environmental tolerances. β diversity among plots was high while α diversity within plots was low to moderate. The plots surveyed contained 14.2% of the Irish native flora. There was a low level of constancy of species. Four reasonably well defined vegetation communities were identified. Soil pH, altitude and slope had important roles in partitioning these vegetation types and soil pH was positively correlated with species richness. P. sylvestris is well established, well integrated and naturalising in Irish semi-natural habitats. Some of the associated vegetation communities corresponded to habitats of international conservation importance. This research demonstrates that stands of P. sylvestris represent an important resource for Ireland’s native botanical and habitat diversity.     

Conservation priority of Italian Alpine habitats: a floristic approach based on potential distribution of vascular plant species

In the European Union, the Directive 92/43/EEC defines a number of species and habitats of community interest that are worthy to be preserved because in danger to disappear or because they are representative of the different European bio-geographical regions. In the light of the limited economic resources generally allocated to conservation efforts, there is the necessity to prioritise conservation actions in order to avoid deterioration of protected areas. To this aim, in the present study the most representative habitats of the Italian Alps are compared on the basis of vascular plant biodiversity and a conservation priority index is proposed for each habitat taking into account the potential distribution of 252 threatened vascular plant species. Rocky slopes, screes and alpine grasslands resulted to have the greatest percentage of endemic plant species so reflecting the general distributional pattern of endemic plant species at high altitudes in Eurasian mountains. The relationship between the conservation priority index and the corresponding habitat extent within the Natura 2000 network suggests that peatlands, arid grasslands, wet meadows and freshwater habitats deserve a higher priority in conservation actions. Although vascular plant biodiversity is not necessarily a surrogate of overall biodiversity of Alpine habitats, the results here reported can be used as an initial reference framework for prioritising conservation actions, so as to accomplish the provisions of Article 6 of Habitats Directive.     

Cork oak woodlands in the north Tyrrhenian area (Italy): distribution and plant species diversity of a relict forest ecosystem

Italian north Tyrrhenian regions harbour pure or nearly pure cork oak woodlands towards the NE limit of the species range and the highest proportion of the habitat on mainland Italy, but their distribution, biodiversity and conservation status are still poorly known. Focusing on the key region of Tuscany, we analysed distribution and plant species richness of these forests based on literature and original field data. The habitat covers about 5.730?ha and is strongly fragmented for natural and non-natural reasons, underscoring its relict character. Out of the 420 plant taxa recorded, 19 were listed in IUCN categories at the national or regional level. Taxonomic singularity was especially high at the genus rank. Three neighbouring areas with different soil conditions and forest structure were compared based on field surveys, sample plots and linear transects from dense stands to shrub and herbaceous communities of small openings. The Versegge site showed the highest species richness at the area-scale and the mean diversity at the plot scale, representing a key biotope for the conservation of the habitat. However, the geographic–floristic covariation between the three sites suggested that a network of small areas would be more effective than a single, large area to protect the most significant components of the local cork oak flora. The Lattaia and Terzo areas may play an important role as corridor sites between the four SCIs of the Rete Natura 2000 network including cork oak communities on the Tuscan mainland. Species richness was higher in the stands with lower cork oak basal area, and there was a significant increase in species number along transects reaching openings caused by traditional human activities. A minor anthropic disturbance of traditional type may help to preserve the fine-scale habitat heterogeneity and the biodiversity of the whole ecosystem.     

The visual ecology of Puerto Rican anoline lizards: habitat light and spectral sensitivity

The visual ecology of six closely related species of Puerto Rican anoline lizards was investigated and they were found to occupy four distinct habitat types in terms of light conditions: “full shade”, “partial shade”, “no shade”, and “forest canopy.”The habitats differed substantially in total radiance and irradiance as well as in the shape of the irradiance spectrum. The shape of the radiance spectrum was similar in all of the habitats. We used electroretinogram (ERG) flicker photometry to measure spectral sensitivity and found the curves for all six species to be similar. The spectral sensitivity peaked in the range 550–560 nm, which matched the peak in spectral radiance for all of the habitats. The shape of the spectral-sensitivity curve was similar to those of a number of other terrestrial vertebrates. We suggest that the convergence of the shape of the photopic ERG-determined spectral-sensitivity curve in many terrestrial vertebrates may, in part, be due to the fact that the background radiance of many terrestrial habitats is dominated by the reflectance spectrum of green vegetation which peaks at 550 nm. Accepted: 14 May 1997     

Assessing long-term spatial changes of natural habitats using old maps and archival sources: a case study from Central Europe

Landscapes intensively farmed over a long time period represent a threat for natural habitats and high levels of biodiversity. Information on the historical land use and spatial changes of natural habitats can help to explain the causes of a number of contemporary phenomena, which are important for the development of effective conservation and ecosystem management. This case study from the Czech Republic shows that archival written sources describing landscape quality, including vegetation cover, allow the reclassification of old maps to the level of natural habitat categories (sensu Natura 2000), with the aim of analyzing historic changes in land cover. Significant natural habitat decreases began by the middle of the 19th century. Over the course of 250 years, this area of formerly widespread natural wet meadows has declined by 99 %. An area of water vegetation was reduced by 95 %, willow carrs by 98 %, and a mosaic of willow carrs, wet Cirsium meadow, and alder carrs has decreased by 100 %. These decreases were caused by the conversion of meadows, pastures, and ponds into arable lands. Areas of oak-hornbeam forest, acidophilous oak forest, and thermophilous oak forest were primarily converted into monocultures of coniferous trees. Similarly, the areas with alluvial forests decreased. We conclude that old maps and other archive materials, despite their coarse accuracy, can serve as useful tools for disclosing natural habitat changes and their causes, providing a foundation for formulating biodiversity conservation strategies.     

Species,Habitats, Society: An Evaluation of Research Supporting EU's Natura 2000 Network

The Natura 2000 network is regarded as one of the conservation success stories in the global effort to protect biodiversity. However, significant challenges remain in Natura 2000 implementation, owing to its rapid expansion, and lack of a coherent vision for its future. Scientific research is critical for identifying conservation priorities, setting management goals, and reconciling biodiversity protection and society in the complex political European landscape. Thus, there is an urgent need for a comprehensive evaluation of published Natura 2000 research to highlight prevalent research themes, disciplinary approaches, and spatial entities. We conducted a systematic review of 572 scientific articles and conference proceedings focused on Natura 2000 research, published between 1996 and 2014. We grouped these articles into ‘ecological’ and ‘social and policy’ categories. Using a novel application of network analysis of article keywords, we found that Natura 2000 research forms a cohesive small-world network, owing to the emphasis on ecological research (79% of studies, with a strong focus on spatial conservation planning), and the underrepresentation of studies addressing ‘social and policy’ issues (typically focused on environmental impact assessment, multi-level governance, agri-environment policy, and ecosystem services valuation). ‘Ecological’ and ‘social and policy’ research shared only general concepts (e.g., Natura 2000, Habitats Directive) suggesting a disconnection between these disciplines. The UK and the Mediterranean basin countries dominated Natura 2000 research, and there was a weak correlation between number of studies and proportion of national territory protected. Approximately 40% of ‘social and policy’ research and 26% of ‘ecological’ studies highlighted negative implications of Natura 2000, while 21% of studies found positive social and biodiversity effects. We emphasize the need for designing inter- and transdisciplinary research in order to promote a social-ecological understanding of Natura 2000, and advance EU conservation policies.     

Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil

A recent debate has contrasted two conservation strategies in agricultural landscapes; either “land sparing” farm development combining intensive production practices with forest set-asides, or “wildlife-friendly” farming with greater on-farm habitat value but lower yields. We argue that in established mosaic landscapes including old cacao production regions where natural forest has already been reduced to relatively small fragments, a combination of both strategies is needed to conserve biodiversity. After reviewing the evidence for the insufficiency of either strategy alone if applied to such landscapes, the paper focuses on the cacao production landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil, once the world’s second largest cacao producer. Here, small remaining areas of Atlantic Forest are embedded in a matrix dominated by traditional cacao agroforests, resulting in a landscape mosaic that has proven favorable to the conservation of the region’s high biodiversity. We show that current land use dynamics and public policies pose threats but also offer opportunities to conservation and describe a three-pronged landscape conservation strategy, consisting of (i) expansion of the protected areas system, (ii) promotion of productive yet biodiversity-friendly cacao farming practices, and (iii) assistance to land users to implement legally mandated on-farm reserves and voluntary private reserves. We discuss recent experiences concerning the implementation of this strategy, discuss likely future scenarios, and reflect on the applicability of the Bahian experience to biodiversity rich cacao production regions elsewhere in the tropics.     

Effectiveness of a large reserve network in protecting freshwater biodiversity: a test for the Iberian Peninsula

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