Challenging urban species diversity: contrasting phylogenetic patterns across plant functional groups in Germany

Cities are hotspots of plant species richness, harboring more species than their rural surroundings, at least over large enough scales. However, species richness does not necessarily cover all aspects of biodiversity such as phylogenetic relationships. Ignoring these relationships, our understanding of how species assemblages develop and change in a changing environment remains incomplete. Given the high vascular plant species richness of urbanized areas in Germany, we asked whether these also have a higher phylogenetic diversity than rural areas, and whether phylogenetic diversity patterns differ systematically between species groups characterized by specific functional traits. Calculating the average phylogenetic distinctness of the total German flora and accounting for spatial autocorrelation, we show that phylogenetic diversity of urban areas does not reflect their high species richness. Hence, high urban species richness is mainly due to more closely related species that are functionally similar and able to deal with urbanization. This diminished phylogenetic information might decrease the flora's capacity to respond to environmental changes.     

Environmental and socio‐economic factors related to urban bird communities

Urban fauna communities may be strongly influenced by environmental and socio‐economic factors, but the relative importance of these factors is poorly known. Most research on urban fauna has been conducted in large cities and it is unclear if the patterns found in these locations coincide with those from smaller human settlements. We examined the relative importance of environmental and socio‐economic factors in explaining variation in urban bird communities across 72 neighbourhoods in 18 regional towns in south‐eastern Australia. Native bird species richness varied from 6 to 32 across neighbourhoods and was higher in neighbourhoods with more nectar‐rich plants. Variation in bird species diversity across neighbourhoods was also strongly positively related to the density of nectar‐rich plants, but was higher also in neighbourhoods with higher socio‐economic status (reflecting higher levels of disposal income, education and home ownership). The density of native birds across neighbourhoods per season varied from 1 to 15 birds per hectare and was lower in neighbourhoods with a greater cover of impervious surfaces. The density of exotic birds (introduced to Australia) per season also varied across neighbourhoods (0–13 birds per hectare) and was lower in neighbourhoods with more nectar‐rich plants and higher in neighbourhoods with greater impervious surface cover. Our results demonstrated that the vegetation characteristics of household gardens, along streetscapes and in urban parklands had a strong influence on the richness and diversity of urban bird communities. The density of native and exotic birds varied primarily in response to changes in the built environment (measured through impervious surface cover). Socio‐economic factors had relatively little direct influence on urban birds, but neighbourhood socio‐economics may influence bird communities indirectly through the positive relationship between socio‐economic status and vegetation cover recorded in our study area.     

Global loss of avian evolutionary uniqueness in urban areas

Urbanization, one of the most important anthropogenic impacts on Earth, is rapidly expanding worldwide. This expansion of urban land‐covered areas is known to significantly reduce different components of biodiversity. However, the global evidence for this effect is mainly focused on a single diversity measure (species richness) with a few local or regional studies also supporting reductions in functional diversity. We have used birds, an important ecological group that has been used as surrogate for other animals, to investigate the hypothesis that urbanization reduces the global taxonomical and/or evolutionary diversity. We have also explored whether there is evidence supporting that urban bird communities are evolutionarily homogenized worldwide in comparison with nonurban ones by means of using evolutionary distinctiveness (how unique are the species) of bird communities. To our knowledge, this is the first attempt to quantify the effect of urbanization in more than one single diversity measure as well as the first time to look for associations between urbanization and phylogenetic diversity at a large spatial scale. Our findings show a strong and globally consistent reduction in taxonomic diversity in urban areas, which is also synchronized with the evolutionary homogenization of urban bird communities. Despite our general patterns, we found some regional differences in the intensity of the effect of cities on bird species richness or evolutionary distinctiveness, suggesting that conservation efforts should be adapted locally. Our findings might be useful for conservationists and policymakers to minimize the impact of urban development on Earth's biodiversity and help design more realistic conservation strategies.     

Urbanization negatively impacts frog diversity at continental,regional, and local scales

Urban environments are novel ecosystems, with increased chemical, sound, and light pollution differentially impacting many animals. Understanding the impacts of urban environments on biodiversity is the first step to understanding how to best mitigate biodiversity losses in an increasingly urbanizing world. Analyses with broad geographic and taxonomic coverage can offer critical context for informing urban biodiversity conservation. But such studies are currently lacking, especially for under-studied, but likely highly impacted, taxa such as frogs. Our objective was to document frog diversity in relation to urban environments at continental, regional, and local scales. We used FrogID data, ⁠an opportunistic citizen science dataset generated by volunteers recording calling frogs using a smartphone and validated by experts ⁠throughout continental Australia, to calculate species richness, Shannon diversity, and phylogenetic diversity of frogs in urban and non-urban areas, as well as along a continuous urbanization gradient. The overall species richness of frogs was, on average, 57% less in urban than non-urban areas across six ecoregions. Further, we found significantly lower frog diversity in urban environments compared with non-urban environments across the country, with an average reduction of 59% species richness, 86% Shannon diversity, and 72% phylogenetic diversity. We also found evidence for a steady decrease in frog diversity along an urbanization gradient, with no obvious thresholds. Our results highlight the negative impacts of urbanization, ⁠at a continental scale, ⁠on frog diversity, and clearly highlight the necessity to consider frog diversity in future urban land development decisions.     

Regional vs local drivers of phylogenetic and species diversity in stream fish communities

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Garden bird feeding predicts the structure of urban avian assemblages

Households across the developed world cumulatively spend many millions of dollars annually on feeding garden birds. While beneficial effects on avian assemblages are frequently claimed, the relationships between levels of garden bird feeding and local avian populations are unknown. Using data from a large UK city, we show that both avian species richness and abundance vary across different socioeconomic neighbourhood types. We examined whether patterns in bird feeding could explain this variation. The density of bird feeding stations across the urban environment was strongly positively related to avian abundance, after controlling for differences in habitat availability. This effect was almost exclusively driven by the abundance of those species known to utilize garden feeding stations frequently. In contrast, the density of feeding stations had no effect on avian species richness. We also examined variation in the proportion of households in different communities that provide food for birds, a factor that is not correlated with feeder density. The prevalence of bird feeding across different neighbourhoods declined as socioeconomic deprivation increased, and increased with avian species richness and abundance. Our results suggest that the provision of supplementary food for birds by multiple landowners across a city can impact the status of urban bird populations. The potential for harnessing these actions for conservation needs to be explored.     

上海城市绿地冬季鸟类群落特征与生境的关系

2005年11月至2006年2月对上海市区绿地鸟类进行了调查,共记录到鸟类34种,隶属5目16科。研究发现冬季鸟类群落结构相对稳定,优势种为麻雀(Passer montanus)和白头鹎(Pycnonotus sinensis)。冬季鸟类群落多样性受多种因素的影响,其中绿地面积、乔木盖度和栖息地类型多样性是影响鸟类多样性的关键因子。聚类结果表明,面积大、生境类型丰富及人为干扰相对较少的绿地,鸟类多样性高。因此提出如下建议:(1)增加城市中植物种类,特别是乡土物种,适当提高冬季常绿乔木以及乔、灌、草的比例;(2)在绿地中尽可能多地保留自然生境;(3)在城市绿地中适当开辟湿地生境,以吸引水鸟栖息。     

欧亚大陆东部毛茛科植物多样性格局及主导因子

毛茛科是真双子叶植物的基部类群之一, 包含多种药用植物, 具有较高的保护价值, 但关于毛茛科物种多样性和谱系多样性大尺度格局及其影响因子的研究还比较匮乏, 特别是以较高分辨率分布数据为基础的物种多样性格局研究尚未见报道。本文旨在: (1)建立欧亚大陆东部毛茛科植物分布数据库, 估算不同生活型物种多样性和谱系多样性格局, 并探究格局的形成机制。(2)分析毛茛科物种多样性和谱系多样性的相关关系, 确定多样性热点地区, 为毛茛科保护规划提供依据。根据中国、哈萨克斯坦、吉尔吉斯斯坦、塔吉克斯坦、土库曼斯坦、乌兹别克斯坦、蒙古和俄罗斯等国家的区域和地方植物志, 建立了“欧亚大陆东部地区毛茛科物种分布数据库”。该数据库包含了欧亚大陆东部地区1,688种毛茛科物种的分布数据, 空间分辨率为100 km × 100 km。在此基础上, 估算了毛茛科全部及不同生活型的物种多样性和谱系多样性格局, 并利用广义线性模型和等级方差分离方法分析了毛茛科物种和谱系多样性格局与环境因子的关系。最后比较了物种多样性和谱系多样性的相关关系, 确定了毛茛科的古热点地区。结果显示: (1)欧亚大陆东部毛茛科植物物种和谱系多样性均呈明显的纬度格局, 且在山区具有较高的多样性。(2)毛茛科植物物种和谱系多样性受现代气候、地形异质性和末次冰期以来的气候变化的共同影响, 但不同影响因子的相对贡献率在物种和谱系多样性及不同生活型之间差异显著。(3)中高纬度地区的谱系多样性高于给定物种数的预期, 是毛茛科的古热点地区, 在毛茛科保护规划中应受到重视。     

Bird densities are associated with household densities

Increasing housing density is an important component of global land transformation, with major impacts on patterns of biodiversity. However, while there have been many studies of the changes in biodiversity across rural–urban gradients, which are influenced in large part by housing densities, how biodiversity changes across the full range of regional variation in housing density remains poorly understood. Here, we explore these relationships for the richness and abundance of breeding birds across Britain. Total richness, and that of 27 urban indicator species, increased from low to moderate household densities and then declined at greater household densities. The richness of all species increased initially faster with household density than did that of the urban indicator species, but nonurban indicator species richness declined consistently after peaking at a very low housing density. Avian abundance showed a rather different pattern. Total abundance and that summed across all urban indicator species increased over a wide range of household densities, and declined only at the highest household densities. The abundance of individual urban indicator species generally exhibited a hump-shaped relationship with housing density. While there was marked intraspecific variation in the form of such relationships, almost invariably avian abundance declined at housing densities below that at which the UK government requires new developments to be built. Our data highlight the difficulties of maintaining biodiversity while minimising land take for new development. High-density housing developments are associated with declines in many of those species otherwise best able to exploit urban environments, and those components of native biodiversity with which human populations are often most familiar.     

Loss of forest cover and host functional diversity increases prevalence of avian malaria parasites in the Atlantic Forest

Host phylogenetic relatedness and ecological similarity are thought to contribute to parasite community assembly and infection rates. However, recent landscape level anthropogenic changes may disrupt host-parasite systems by impacting functional and phylogenetic diversity of host communities. We examined whether changes in host functional and phylogenetic diversity, forest cover, and minimum temperature influence the prevalence, diversity, and distributions of avian haemosporidian parasites (genera Haemoproteus and Plasmodium) across 18 avian communities in the Atlantic Forest. To explore spatial patterns in avian haemosporidian prevalence and taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity, we surveyed 2241 individuals belonging to 233 avian species across a deforestation gradient. Mean prevalence and parasite diversity varied considerably across avian communities and parasites responded differently to host attributes and anthropogenic changes. Avian malaria prevalence (termed herein as an infection caused by Plasmodium parasites) was higher in deforested sites, and both Plasmodium prevalence and taxonomic diversity were negatively related to host functional diversity. Increased diversity of avian hosts increased local taxonomic diversity of Plasmodium lineages but decreased phylogenetic diversity of this parasite genus. Temperature and host phylogenetic diversity did not influence prevalence and diversity of haemosporidian parasites. Variation in the diversity of avian host traits that promote parasite encounter and vector exposure (host functional diversity) partially explained the variation in avian malaria prevalence and diversity. Recent anthropogenic landscape transformation (reduced proportion of native forest cover) had a major influence on avian malaria occurrence across the Atlantic Forest. This suggests that, for Plasmodium, host phylogenetic diversity was not a biotic filter to parasite transmission as prevalence was largely explained by host ecological attributes and recent anthropogenic factors. Our results demonstrate that, similar to human malaria and other vector-transmitted pathogens, prevalence of avian malaria parasites will likely increase with deforestation.     

The role of landscape in shaping bird community and implications for landscape management at Nanjing Lukou International Airport

Understanding the patterns of bird diversity and its driving force is necessary for bird strike prevention. In this study, we investigated the effects of landscape on phylogenetic and functional diversity of bird communities at Nanjing Lukou International Airport (NLIA). Bird identifications and counting of individuals were carried out from November 2017 to October 2019. Based on the land-cover data, the landscape was divided into four main types, including farmlands, woodlands, wetlands, and urban areas. Bird phylogenetic and functional diversity were strongly affected by landscape matrix types. Species richness and Faith's phylogenetic distance were highest in woodlands, while mean pairwise distance (MPD), mean nearest-taxon distance (MNTD), and functional dispersion (FDis) were highest in wetlands. Based on the feeding behavior, carnivorous birds had the lowest species richness but had the highest FDis, which implied that carnivorous birds occupied most niches at the NLIA. Moreover, bird assemblages exhibited phylogenetic and functional clustering in the four kinds of landscapes. A variety of landscape attributes had significant effects on species diversity, phylogenetic and functional diversity. Landscape-scale factors played an important role in the shaping of bird communities around NLIA. Our results suggest that landscape management surrounding airports can provide new approaches for policymakers to mitigate wildlife strikes.     

Contrasting patterns in species richness of birds,butterflies and plants along riparian corridors in an urban landscape

Aim Urbanization is a major driver of global land‐use change, substantially modifying patterns of biodiversity. Managing these impacts has become a conservation priority. The creation and maintenance of greenways, such as river corridors, is frequently promoted as a strategy for mitigating habitat fragmentation in urban areas by bringing semi‐natural habitat cover into city centres. However, there is little evidence to support this assertion. Here, we examine whether riparian zones maintain semi‐natural habitat cover in urban areas and how species richness varies along such zones. Location Sheffield, Northern England. Methods Multiple taxonomic groups (birds, butterflies, plants) were surveyed at 105 sites spanning seven riparian corridors that transect the study system. For all groups, we model the relationships between species richness and environmental variables pertinent to an urban system. To test whether riparian zones can act to maintain semi‐natural habitats within a city, we modelled the proportion of semi‐natural land cover within 250 m grid squares that do, and do not, contain a river. Results Species richness varied markedly in relation to distance from the urban core. Trends differed both between taxonomic groups and between rivers, reflecting the complex patterns of environmental variation associated with cities. This suggests that biodiversity surveys that focus on a single group or transect cannot reliably be used as surrogates even within the same city. Nonetheless, there were common environmental predictors of species richness. Plant, avian and butterfly richness all responded positively to Habitat Diversity and the latter two declined with increases in sealed surface. Main conclusions Multiple transects and taxonomic groups are required to describe species richness responses to urbanization as no single pattern is evident. Although riparian zones are an important component of the mosaic of urban habitats, we find that river corridors do not disproportionately support tree and Natural Surface Cover when compared to non‐riverine urban areas.     

合肥市小微湿地鸟类多样性的时空格局及其影响因素

小微湿地是城市生态系统的重要组成部分, 也是生物多样性的重要庇护场所。鸟类作为城市小微湿地生态系统的指示类群, 其多样性时空格局受多种环境因子影响。本研究于2020年8月至2021年7月采用样点法对合肥市45个小微湿地鸟类的种类、数量分布和生境因子进行了调查, 并获取湿地面积、湿地形状、建筑面积比例、植被面积比例、环境噪声、人为干扰和城市化指数等生境变量。通过α多样性和β多样性分析, 研究城市小微湿地鸟类多样性的时空特征及其决定因素。采用信息论模型选择和模型平均法以及基于距离矩阵的多重回归模型进行计算, 确定影响鸟类群落α多样性和β多样性及其组分的主要环境因子。结果显示, 研究区域共有鸟类13目39科102种, 其中水鸟31种, 国家二级重点保护鸟类2种, 安徽省重点保护鸟类17种, IUCN濒危物种红色名录中的易危(VU)物种1种。湿地面积和城市化指数对小微湿地陆地鸟类和水鸟的α多样性、β多样性及其组分均具有显著影响, 其中陆地鸟类物种丰富度在中度和低度城市化之间的小微湿地中达到最高值, 面积超过4 ha的小微湿地能维持较多的水鸟物种。植被面积比例对陆地鸟类多样性具有重要的影响, 而建筑面积比例对水鸟多样性具有显著影响。此外, 总体β多样性及其组分计算结果显示物种周转组分占明显优势, 表明城市小微湿地群作为城市复合生态系统的重要组成部分, 加强整体保护更为必要。研究结果对于加强城市鸟类保护和提高城市生态环境质量具有指导意义。     

Site‐specific responses of foliar fungal microbiomes to nutrient addition and herbivory at different spatial scales

The plant microbiome can affect host function in many ways and characterizing the ecological factors that shape endophytic (microbes living inside host plant tissues) community diversity is a key step in understanding the impacts of environmental change on these communities. Phylogenetic relatedness among members of a community offers a way of quantifying phylogenetic diversity of a community and can provide insight into the ecological factors that shape endophyte microbiomes. We examined the effects of experimental nutrient addition and herbivory exclusion on the phylogenetic diversity of foliar fungal endophyte communities of the grass species Andropogon gerardii at four sites in the Great Plains of the central USA. Using amplicon sequencing, we characterized the effects of fertilization and herbivory on fungal community phylogenetic diversity at spatial scales that spanned within‐host to between sites across the Great Plains. Despite increasing fungal diversity and richness, at larger spatial scales, fungal microbiomes were composed of taxa showing random phylogenetic associations. Phylogenetic diversity did not differ systematically when summed across increasing spatial scales from a few meters within plots to hundreds of kilometers among sites. We observed substantial shifts in composition across sites, demonstrating distinct but similarly diverse fungal communities were maintained within sites across the region. In contrast, at the scale of within leaves, fungal communities tended to be comprised of closely related taxa regardless of the environment, but there were no shifts in phylogenetic composition among communities. We also found that nutrient addition (fertilization) and herbivory have varying effects at different sites. These results suggest that the direction and magnitude of the outcomes of environmental modifications likely depend on the spatial scale considered, and can also be constrained by regional site differences in microbial diversity and composition.     

Bird Richness and Abundance in Response to Urban Form in a Latin American City: Valdivia,Chile as a Case Study

There is mounting evidence that urban areas influence biodiversity. Generalizations however require that multiple urban areas on multiple continents be examined. Here we evaluated the role of urban areas on avian diversity for a South American city, allowing us to examine the effects of urban features common worldwide, using the city of Valdivia, Chile as case study. We assessed the number of birds and their relative abundance in 152 grid cells of equal size (250 m²) distributed across the city. We estimated nine independent variables: land cover diversity (DC), building density (BD), impervious surface (IS),municipal green space (MG),non-municipal green space (NG), domestic garden space (DG), distance to the periphery (DP), social welfare index (SW), and vegetation diversity (RV). Impervious surface represent 41.8% of the study area, while municipal green, non-municipal green and domestic garden represent 11.6%, 23.6% and 16% of the non- man made surface. Exotic vegetation species represent 74.6% of the total species identified across the city. We found 32 bird species, all native with the exception of House Sparrow and Rock Pigeon. The most common species were House Sparrow and Chilean Swallow. Total bird richness responds negatively to IS and MG, while native bird richness responds positively to NG and negatively to BD, IS DG and, RV. Total abundance increase in areas with higher values of DC and BD, and decrease in areas of higher values of IS, SW and VR. Native bird abundance responds positively to NG and negatively to BD, IS MG, DG and RV. Our results suggest that not all the general patterns described in previous studies, conducted mainly in the USA, Europe, and Australia, can be applied to Latin American cities, having important implications for urban planning. Conservation efforts should focus on non-municipal areas, which harbor higher bird diversity, while municipal green areas need to be improved to include elements that can enhance habitat quality for birds and other species. These findings are relevant for urban planning in where both types of green space need to be considered, especially non-municipal green areas, which includes wetlands, today critically threatened by urban development.     

Influence of grazing and fire on breeding birds and perennial plants in Cyprus scrub and forest systems

Grazing and browsing by sheep and goats has been an important anthropogenic influence on ecosystems in the Mediterranean region for centuries. This influence has changed significantly in recent decades, with a general shift from range grazing to the penning of animals. The intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH) proposes that perturbation - including anthropogenic disturbance - is the norm for Mediterranean ecosystems, and that higher species diversity is found under conditions of continuous, moderate disturbance. Here we test the IDH as it relates to grazing of scrub and open forest habitats in Cyprus, while also testing for the effects of fire. We carried out surveys of breeding birds and vegetation at 48 study sites in scrub and open woodland across Cyprus. We estimated relative grazing pressure (past and present) and fire history at these sites, and tested for associations between these factors, breeding bird species richness and perennial vegetation diversity. We found moderate current grazing reduces density of lower and middle level scrub, and a higher level of diversity of perennial vegetation at moderately over intensively grazed sites. We found that moderate historical grazing pressure had a positive influence on richness of breeding bird species in lower scrub habitat such as phrygana, but that this effect was weaker the taller and denser the habitat. By contrast, current grazing pressure had a negative effect on species richness in lower scrub, but species richness in grazed habitats was higher in denser, taller scrub habitat such as garrigue and maquis. Our study suggests grazing plays an important role in maintaining habitat heterogeneity but the impact on avian species richness depends on the density and height of the vegetation.     

Increase in size and shrub cover improves bird functional diversity in Neotropical urban green spaces

Latin American cityscapes are growing fast, posing risks to many bird communities and ecosystem services (e.g. seed dispersal and arthropod population control), but few studies have addressed how bird functional diversity respond to urbanization in Neotropical cities. In this study, we tested which biotic (i.e. vegetation characteristics and human and pet disturbances) and abiotic variables (i.e. area size, number of vehicles, and glass panes) influence functional diversity indices of insectivores, frugivores-nectarivores, migrants, residents, and total bird community at urban green spaces in São Paulo megacity, southeastern Brazil. A rich avian community (235 species) from 25 studied sites was recorded. Generalized linear models (GLM) analyses showed that large-sized areas of urban green spaces and shrub cover are the main characteristics that drive high bird functional diversity. Small-sized sites were less favourable for preserving bird functional diversity. We showed that these areas were related to some negative impacts for bird species (e.g. absence of shrub layer, heavy traffic and massive presence of glass panes, and domestic animals), thus causing declines in avian functional diversity. Off-leash and homeless dogs and cats may cause declines in bird ecological functions (e.g. insect control, seed dispersal and pollination), which are essential to sustain biodiversity. Therefore, as management actions to improve bird diversity and better provisioning of ecosystem functions, we recommend that urban planners and managers should prioritize large-sized areas with high shrub cover. Additionally, we highlight the need to mitigate the negative impact on birds caused by glass panes, traffic of vehicles, and off-leash and homeless dogs and cats.     

Quantitative partitioning of regional and local processes shaping regional diversity patterns

Much recent research explaining plant community diversity has focused on comparing the relative impacts of regional and local processes. We employed a novel analysis to quantify the effects of multiple regional and local processes on species richness, and to make quantitative comparisons of those effects across two sites that differ in plot-level species richness, productivity and environmental conditions. While abiotic stress and competition limited richness within the communities at both sites, only differences in the overall pool of species at the site, likely resulting from long-distance dispersal and climate fluctuations, explained the differences in plot-level richness between sites. Patterns in local richness may be driven by a temporal storage effect, with greater richness in the site with greater climatic variability. By identifying both the factors that impact diversity within communities and those that vary systematically across communities, our integrated approach provides a better understanding of regional diversity patterns.     

Regional variation in the historical components of global avian species richness

Aim Using a global data base of the distribution of extant bird species, we examine the evidence for spatial variation in the evolutionary origins of contemporary avian diversity. In particular, we assess the possible role of the timing of mountain uplift in promoting diversification in different regions. Location Global. Methods We mapped the distribution of avian richness at four taxonomic levels on an equal‐area 1° grid. We examined the relationships between richness at successive taxonomic levels (e.g. species richness vs. genus richness). We mapped the residuals from linear regressions of these relationships to identify areas that are exceptional in the number of lower taxa relative to the number of higher taxa. We use generalized least squares models to test the influence of elevation range and temperature on lower‐taxon richness relative to higher‐taxon richness. Results Peaks of species richness in the Neotropics were congruent with patterns of generic richness, whilst peaks in Australia and the Himalayas were congruent with patterns of both genus and family richness. Hotspots in the Afrotropics did not reflect higher‐taxon patterns. Regional differences in the relationship between richness at successive taxonomic levels revealed variation in patterns of taxon co‐occurrence. Species and genus co‐occurrence was positively associated with elevational range across much of the world. Taxon occurrence in the Neotropics was associated with a positive interaction between elevational range and temperature. Conclusions These results demonstrate that contemporary patterns of richness show different associations with higher‐taxon richness in different regions, which implies that the timing of historical effects on these contemporary patterns varies across regions. We suggest that this is due to dispersal limitation and phylogenetic constraints on physiological tolerance limits promoting diversification. We speculate that diversification rates respond to long‐term changes in the Earth's topography, and that the role of tropical mountain ranges is implicated as a correlate of contemporary diversity, and a source of diversification across avian evolutionary history.     

Soil fungal communities of grasslands are environmentally structured at a regional scale in the Alps

Studying patterns of species distributions along elevation gradients is frequently used to identify the primary factors that determine the distribution, diversity and assembly of species. However, despite their crucial role in ecosystem functioning, our understanding of the distribution of below‐ground fungi is still limited, calling for more comprehensive studies of fungal biogeography along environmental gradients at various scales (from regional to global). Here, we investigated the richness of taxa of soil fungi and their phylogenetic diversity across a wide range of grassland types along a 2800 m elevation gradient at a large number of sites (213), stratified across a region of the Western Swiss Alps (700 km²). We used 454 pyrosequencing to obtain fungal sequences that were clustered into operational taxonomic units (OTUs). The OTU diversity–area relationship revealed uneven distribution of fungal taxa across the study area (i.e. not all taxa are everywhere) and fine‐scale spatial clustering. Fungal richness and phylogenetic diversity were found to be higher in lower temperatures and higher moisture conditions. Climatic and soil characteristics as well as plant community composition were related to OTU alpha, beta and phylogenetic diversity, with distinct fungal lineages suggesting distinct ecological tolerances. Soil fungi, thus, show lineage‐specific biogeographic patterns, even at a regional scale, and follow environmental determinism, mediated by interactions with plants.