超嗜热古菌遗传操作系统研究进展

摘要：遗传操作系统,是研究基因和基因产物功能的一个极为重要的工具。超嗜热古菌遗传操作系统方面的研究落后于甲烷菌及嗜盐古菌中的研究,主要原因是选择标记的缺乏。然而,近十年来,在以硫化叶菌(Sulfolobus)为代表的超嗜热泉古菌和Thermococcus kodakaraensis为代表的超嗜热广古菌中,遗传操作系统研究取得了很大的进展。本文主要对这两种超嗜热古菌的遗传操作系统进展以及应用进行概述。     

Ssh10b2与其同源蛋白Ssh10b在细胞含量及固定DNA超螺旋的能力上存在明显差异

极端嗜热古菌———芝田硫化叶菌(Sulfolobus shibatae)基因组含一对亲缘关系较远的同源基因,ssh10b和ssh10b2。这对同源基因编码的蛋白(Ssh10b和Ssh10b2)属于古菌Sac10b DNA结合蛋白家族。关于Ssh10b以及与其极为相似的硫矿硫化叶菌(S.solfataricus)Sso10b、嗜酸热硫化叶菌(S.acidocaldarius)Sac10b蛋白已有较多研究,推测这些蛋白可能在染色体组织和包装、DNA重组、基因表达调控等方面起作用。克隆并在大肠杆菌中表达了ssh10b2基因,纯化了重组Ssh10b2蛋白。免疫印迹定量分析表明,ssh10b2在芝田硫化叶菌中有表达,但其细胞含量仅相当于Ssh10b的约十分之一。重组Ssh10b2对双链DNA的亲和力低于Ssh10b。此外,Ssh10b2和Ssh10b在与双链DNA结合时表现出相似的凝胶阻滞模式。有意思的是,Ssh10b2固定DNA负超螺旋的能力明显低于Ssh10b。这些结果提示,Ssh10b和Ssh10b2可能具有不同的生理作用。     

嗜盐古菌中Ⅰ-B亚型CRISPR-Cas系统的分子机制和应用进展

嗜盐古菌是一类应用前景广阔的微生物资源,但由于缺乏高效灵活的遗传操作工具,限制了这类生物在科学研究和工业生产方面的应用。CRISPR-Cas系统存在于绝大多数古菌中,应用其内源性CRISPR-Cas系统进行遗传操作是一种兼具可行性和简便性的策略。近年来,人们对Ⅰ-B亚型CRISPR-Cas系统的研究已从模式古菌沃氏富盐菌(Haloferax volcanii)拓展到其他嗜盐古菌中。本文总结了Ⅰ-B亚型CRISPR-Cas系统的分子机制,并介绍了利用这种内源性CRISPR-Cas系统在嗜盐古菌中进行遗传操作的研究进展。     

台勾霉素生产菌指孢囊菌NRRL 18085遗传操作体系的建立

【目的】建立新型大环内酯类抗生素台勾霉素的生产菌指孢囊菌Dactylosporangium aurantiacum NRRL18085的遗传操作体系,实现台勾霉素相关生物合成基因的敲除突变。【方法】以整合型质粒pSET152为载体,建立了外源DNA通过接合转移进入指孢囊菌NRRL18085的操作方法和培养条件,利用PCR-targeting系统在体外构建了一个台勾霉素卤化酶基因敲除的cosmid质粒,通过接合转移转入到指孢囊菌NRRL18085野生菌中。【结果】获得了台勾霉素卤化酶基因敲除的指孢囊菌NRRL18085的双交换突变株,该突变株失去了产生台勾霉素的能力。【结论】成功建立和优化了指孢囊菌NRRL18085菌株的遗传操作体系,使得在体内分析和鉴定台勾霉素生物合成基因的功能成为可能,同时也为建立其他类似放线菌的遗传操作体系提供了参考。     

硫矿硫化叶菌P2分子伴侣基因的克隆表达及其性质

[目的]研究重组表达的硫矿硫化叶菌P2分子伴侣β亚基体外同源聚合体的结构和生化功能.[方法]利用PCR技术从硫矿硫化叶菌P2的基因组DNA中克隆得到分子伴侣β亚基的基因,将该基因克隆到表达载体pET-21a( )上并在大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)中实现了表达.对纯化后的β亚基单体进行体外聚合,利用透射电镜观察β分子伴侣的结构,并对其促蛋白折叠性质进行了研究.[结果]硫矿硫化叶菌P2分子伴侣β亚基基因在大肠杆菌BL21中实现了高效表达,纯化后的分子伴侣β亚基单体在ATP和Mg2 存在的条件下可自组装形成分子伴侣聚合体.透射电镜观察表明:该β分子伴侣具有Ⅱ型分子伴侣典型的双层面包圈结构,每个环由8个亚基构成.该β分子伴侣具有ATPase活性,最适反应温度为80℃;它不仅能够促进变性的绿色荧光蛋白(GFP)重新折叠,而且还能有效的提高木聚糖酶的热稳定性.[结论]本文根据P2基因组序列分析预测的分子伴侣基因设计引物,克隆表达了硫矿硫化叶菌P2分子伴侣的β亚基,纯化后对其进行体外聚合,透射电镜观察表明该聚合体具有Ⅱ型分子伴侣的经典结构,功能分析表明该β分子伴侣能够在体外促进异源蛋白质的折叠、提高其它酶分子的热稳定性.这为进一步深入研究嗜热古菌耐热抗逆的分子机制,奠定了良好的基础.     

一种基于线性DNA片段同源重组的嗜盐古菌高效基因敲除系统

随着功能基因组学研究的深入发展,基因敲除技术日益成为基因功能研究的重要手段。嗜盐古菌Haloferax volcanii易于培养,是研究古菌基因功能的良好模式菌株。虽然现已开发了多种嗜盐古菌的遗传操作系统,但基因敲除成功率不十分理想。这些遗传操作方法基于pyrE筛选标记,利用携带同源片段的环状质粒与基因组同源片段间的两次同源重组,敲除目的基因。由于基于环状质粒和pyrE筛选标记的经典同源重组敲除方法在二次重组时,普遍存在回复到野生型菌株的可能,导致二次重组子中敲除目的基因的阳性菌株比例较低。为了克服传统同源重组技术的上述缺陷,文章建立了基于线性DNA片段的同源重组技术。该方法通过一次重组在目标基因的下游引入一段上游同源片段和pyrE标记,从而限定二次重组的发生部位只能在两段上游同源片段之间,发生二次重组的重组子理论上都敲除了目标基因。利用该方法,文章成功敲除了嗜盐古菌Haloferax volcanii的xpd2基因,阳性克隆率达65%。这种线性DNA片段重组法为嗜盐古菌的基因敲除提供了一种高效策略,便于嗜盐古菌的基因改造。     

耐热古菌芝田硫化叶菌海藻糖生成相关酶的基因克隆、表达和序列分析

从耐热古菌海藻糖芝田硫化叶菌B12中分别克隆出海藻糖生成相关酶——麦芽寡糖基海藻糖合酶的基因treY和麦芽寡糖基海藻糖基水解酶的基因treZ,测定了其核苷酸序列并进行了表达.其中treY编码的蛋白质有728个氨基酸、分子质量为86 ku;treZ编码的蛋白质有559个氨基酸、分子质量为65 ku.它们与已报道的其他微生物的两个海藻糖生成相关酶的基因进行同源性比较,treY和treZ的同源性分别为93%和76%（硫矿硫化叶菌P2）、97%和95%（硫矿硫化叶菌KM1）、63%和66%（嗜酸热硫化叶菌ATCC33909）、48％和50%（节杆菌Q36）、48%和52%（根瘤菌M11）、50%和52％（短杆菌）.通过PHYLIP软件进行这些基因序列的分类聚类计算,获得这几种微生物间两个酶类的蛋白质系统进化树;经过氨基酸序列比较分析还发现,所有的海藻糖生成相关酶都含有糖苷酶家族13中几个高度保守的α-淀粉酶催化活性区,推测这些海藻糖生成相关酶都可能有着共同的进化来源.     

极端嗜热古菌———芝田硫化叶菌DNA 连接酶的生化性质

极端嗜热古菌———芝田硫化叶菌 DNA 连接酶 (Ssh 连接酶 ) 的最适辅因子为 ATP ,在 dATP 存在时,该酶也能表现出较弱的连接活性 . ATP 或 dATP 都能够使该酶发生腺苷化,腺苷化的 Ssh 连接酶能够将腺苷基团转移至含切刻的 DNA 上 . 电泳迁移率改变实验表明, Ssh 连接酶能够结合双链 DNA ,且与含切刻及不含切刻的 DNA 结合的亲和力相同,但不结合单链 DNA. 酵母双杂交实验显示,硫磺矿硫化叶菌 ( 与芝田硫化叶菌亲缘关系很近 ) 的 DNA 连接酶,与该菌所含的 3 个增殖细胞核抗原 (PCNA) 同源蛋白中的一个 (PCNA-1) 有相互作用,而与另外 2 个同源蛋白 (PCNA-like 和 PCNA-2) 则无相互作用 . 在古菌中高度保守的 Sac10b 蛋白家族成员 Ssh10b 能够激活 Ssh 连接酶的活性,而硫化叶菌中的主要染色体蛋白——— 7 ku DNA 结合蛋白 (Ssh7) 则对该酶活性没有影响 .     

芝田硫化叶菌Ssh7蛋白的进化保守性及DNA结合特性

嗜酸热古菌——芝田硫化叶菌(Sulfolobus shibatae)合成大量7 kD DNA结合蛋白Ssh7. Southern杂交结果显示, 该菌基因组中含有两个编码Ssh7蛋白的基因, 分别命名为ssh7a和ssh7b. 对这两个基因进行了克隆、序列测定和在大肠杆菌中的表达. 测序结果表明, 两个Ssh7多肽仅在3个氨基酸位置上有差异; 此外, ssh7a和ssh7b的顺式调控序列也十分相似, 提示存在着维持两个基因的序列和表达都不变的选择压力. 杂交结果还显示, 与芝田硫化叶菌一样, 硫磺矿硫化叶菌(Sulfolobus solfataricus)基因组中也含有两个编码7 kD蛋白的基因. 结合其他报道, 这一结果提示编码7 kD蛋白的基因可能在硫化叶菌种间分歧形成之前发生了基因复制. 采用电泳迁移率改变试验(EMSA)分析了天然及重组Ssh7蛋白与双链DNA片段之间的相互作用. 天然和重组蛋白的EMSA行为相似, 说明Ssh7与DNA的相互作用既不受发生在天然蛋白赖氨酸残基上的甲基化的影响, 也不受两种多肽异构体之间在序列上的差异的影响. 在所采用的实验条件下, Ssh7与双链DNA片段结合时的结合位点大约为6.6 bp, 表观解离常数为(0.7~1.0)×10^-7 mol/L. 此外, Ssh7与负超螺旋DNA的结合强于与线性和松弛DNA的结合.     

去甲万古霉素生产菌株Amycolatopsis orientalis遗传操作体系的建立

为了对去甲万古霉素高产菌中的功能基因进行研究,以整合型p ZMW为载体,考察了去甲万古霉素生产菌东方拟无枝酸菌属间接合转移限制因素,优化3个关键限制因素:产孢培养基为YD,起始孢子量控制在1×10~8~4×10~8/反应,抗生素覆盖时间为16~17 h为宜。建立了东方拟无枝酸菌生产菌株NCPC 2-48的操作方法和培养条件,使体内分析该菌的生物合成及调控基因的功能成为可能,并为建立其他放线菌遗传操作体系提供了参考。     

Development of a simvastatin selection marker for a hyperthermophilic acidophile, Sulfolobus islandicus

We report here a novel selectable marker for the hyperthermophilic crenarchaeon Sulfolobus islandicus. The marker cassette is composed of the sac7d promoter and the hmg gene coding for the 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase (P(sac7d)-hmg), which confers simvastatin resistance to this crenarchaeon. The basic plasmid vector pSSR was constructed by substituting the pyrEF gene of the expression vector pSeSD for P(sac7d)-hmg with which the Sulfolobus expression plasmids pSSRlacS, pSSRAherA, and pSSRNherA were constructed. Characterization of Sulfolobus transformants carrying pSSRlacS indicated that the plasmid was properly maintained under selection. High-level expression of the His(6)-tagged HerA helicase was obtained with the cells harboring pSSRAherA. The establishment of two efficient selectable markers (pyrEF and hmg) was subsequently exploited for genetic analysis. A herA merodiploid strain of S. islandicus was constructed using pyrEF marker and used as the host to obtain pSSRNherA transformant with simvastatin selection. While the gene knockout (ΔherA) cells generated from the herA merodiploid cells failed to form colonies in the presence of 5-fluoroorotic acid (5-FOA), the mutant cells could be rescued by expression of the gene from a plasmid (pSSRNherA), because their transformants formed colonies on a solid medium containing 5-FOA and simvastatin. This demonstrates that HerA is essential for cell viability of S. islandicus. To our knowledge, this is the first application of an antibiotic selectable marker in genetic study for a hyperthermophilic acidophile and in the crenarchaeal lineage.     

Holliday junction resolving enzymes of archaeal viruses SIRV1 and SIRV2

In the final stages of genetic recombination, Holliday junction resolving enzymes transform the four-way DNA intermediate into two duplex DNA molecules by introducing pairs of staggered nicks flanking the junction. This fundamental process is apparently common to cells from all three domains of life. Two cellular resolving enzymes from extremely thermophilic representatives of both kingdoms of the domain Archaea, the euryarchaeon Pyrococcus furiosus and the crenarchaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus, have been described recently. Here we report for the first time the isolation, purification and characterization of Holliday junction cleaving enzymes (Hjc) from two archaeal viruses. Both viruses, SIRV1 and SIRV2, infect Sulfolobus islandicus. Their Hjcs both consist of 121 amino acid residues (aa) differing only by 18 aa. Both proteins bind selectively to synthetic Holliday-structure analogues with an apparent dissociation constant of 25 nM. In the presence of Mg(2+) the enzymes produce identical cleavage patterns near the junction. While S. islandicus shows optimal growth at about 80 degrees C, the nucleolytic activities of recombinant SIRV2 Hjc was highest between 45 degrees C and 70 degrees C. Based on their specificity for four-way DNA structures the enzymes may play a general role in genetic recombination, DNA repair and the resolution of replicative intermediates.     

Dynamic properties of the Sulfolobus CRISPR/Cas and CRISPR/Cmr systems when challenged with vector-borne viral and plasmid genes and protospacers

The adaptive immune CRISPR/Cas and CRISPR/Cmr systems of the crenarchaeal thermoacidophile Sulfolobus were challenged by a variety of viral and plasmid genes, and protospacers preceded by different dinucleotide motifs. The genes and protospacers were constructed to carry sequences matching individual spacers of CRISPR loci, and a range of mismatches were introduced. Constructs were cloned into vectors carrying pyrE/pyrF genes and transformed into uracil auxotrophic hosts derived from Sulfolobus solfataricus P2 or Sulfolobus islandicus REY15A. Most constructs, including those carrying different protospacer mismatches, yielded few viable transformants. These were shown to carry either partial deletions of CRISPR loci, covering a broad spectrum of sizes and including the matching spacer, or deletions of whole CRISPR/Cas modules. The deletions occurred independently of whether genes or protospacers were transcribed. For family I CRISPR loci, the presence of the protospacer CC motif was shown to be important for the occurrence of deletions. The results are consistent with a low level of random dynamic recombination occurring spontaneously, either inter-genomically or intra-genomically, at the repeat regions of Sulfolobus CRISPR loci. Moreover, the relatively high incidence of single-spacer deletions observed for S. islandicus suggests that an additional more directed mechanism operates in this organism.     

Genome analyses of Icelandic strains of Sulfolobus islandicus, model organisms for genetic and virus-host interaction studies

The genomes of two Sulfolobus islandicus strains obtained from Icelandic solfataras were sequenced and analyzed. Strain REY15A is a host for a versatile genetic toolbox. It exhibits a genome of minimal size, is stable genetically, and is easy to grow and manipulate. Strain HVE10/4 shows a broad host range for exceptional crenarchaeal viruses and conjugative plasmids and was selected for studying their life cycles and host interactions. The genomes of strains REY15A and HVE10/4 are 2.5 and 2.7 Mb, respectively, and each genome carries a variable region of 0.5 to 0.7 Mb where major differences in gene content and gene order occur. These include gene clusters involved in specific metabolic pathways, multiple copies of VapBC antitoxin-toxin gene pairs, and in strain HVE10/4, a 50-kb region rich in glycosyl transferase genes. The variable region also contains most of the insertion sequence (IS) elements and high proportions of the orphan orfB elements and SMN1 miniature inverted-repeat transposable elements (MITEs), as well as the clustered regular interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-based immune systems, which are complex and diverse in both strains, consistent with them having been mobilized both intra- and intercellularly. In contrast, the remainder of the genomes are highly conserved in their protein and RNA gene syntenies, closely resembling those of other S. islandicus and Sulfolobus solfataricus strains, and they exhibit only minor remnants of a few genetic elements, mainly conjugative plasmids, which have integrated at a few tRNA genes lacking introns. This provides a possible rationale for the presence of the introns.     

An active nonautonomous mobile element in Sulfolobus islandicus REN1H1

In the crenarchaeote Sulfolobus islandicus REN1H1, a mobile element of 321 bp length has been shown to be active. It does not contain terminal inverted repeats and transposes by a replicative mechanism. This newly discovered element has been named SMN1 (for Sulfolobus miniature noninverted repeat transposable element).     

Biochemical characterization of a structure-specific resolving enzyme from Sulfolobus islandicus rod-shaped virus 2

Sulfolobus islandicus rod shaped virus 2 (SIRV2) infects the archaeon Sulfolobus islandicus at extreme temperature (70°C-80°C) and acidity (pH 3). SIRV2 encodes a Holliday junction resolving enzyme (SIRV2 Hjr) that has been proposed as a key enzyme in SIRV2 genome replication. The molecular mechanism for SIRV2 Hjr four-way junction cleavage bias, minimal requirements for four-way junction cleavage, and substrate specificity were determined. SIRV2 Hjr cleaves four-way DNA junctions with a preference for cleavage of exchange strand pairs, in contrast to host-derived resolving enzymes, suggesting fundamental differences in substrate recognition and cleavage among closely related Sulfolobus resolving enzymes. Unlike other viral resolving enzymes, such as T4 endonuclease VII or T7 endonuclease I, that cleave branched DNA replication intermediates, SIRV2 Hjr cleavage is specific to four-way DNA junctions and inactive on other branched DNA molecules. In addition, a specific interaction was detected between SIRV2 Hjr and the SIRV2 virion body coat protein (SIRV2gp26). Based on this observation, a model is proposed linking SIRV2 Hjr genome resolution to viral particle assembly.     

Sulfolobicins, specific proteinaceous toxins produced by strains of the extremely thermophilic archaeal genus Sulfolobus

Several novel strains of "Sulfolobus islandicus" produced proteinaceous toxins, termed sulfolobicins, which killed cells of other strains of the same species, as well as of Sulfolobus solfataricus P1 and Sulfolobus shibatae B12, but not of the producer strains and of Sulfolobus acidocaldarius DSM639. The sulfolobicin purified from the strain HEN2/2 had a molecular mass of about 20 kDa. It was found to be associated with the producer cells as well as with cell-derived S-layer-coated spherical membrane vesicles 90 to 180 nm in diameter and was not released from the cells in soluble form.