表观遗传学新视点——DNA羟甲基化

5-羟甲基胞嘧啶（5hmC）是新发现的一种的修饰碱基,以低水平存在于哺乳动物的多种细胞类型中。5hmC是10-11易位（TET）家族的酶通过氧化5-甲基胞嘧啶（5mC）产生的。5hmC不仅能够降低MeCP蛋白的甲基化结合结构域（MBD）与甲基化DNA的亲和性,具有潜在的参与基因表达调控的转录调节功能,而且参与了DNA去甲基化过程。因此关于5hmC的研究日益受到学者们的青睐,随着5hmC甲基化分析和检测方法学日益发展,发现5hmC分布具有组织特异性,并且5hmC在肿瘤组织中含量显著降低,可能成为某些肿瘤早期诊断的分子标志物。     

TET蛋白去甲基化作用的相关研究进展

TET(ten-eleven translocation)蛋白属于酮戊二酸和Fe2+依赖的双加氧酶,能够产生催化氧化作用。在TET蛋白家族的催化氧化作用下5-甲基胞嘧啶(5-methylcytosine,5mC)可转化为5-羟甲基胞嘧啶(5-hydroxymethylcytosine,5hmC),并可进一步转化为5-甲酰胞嘧啶(5-formylcytosine,5fC)和5-羧基胞嘧啶(5-carboxylcytosine,5caC)。TET蛋白在DNA胞嘧啶的去甲基化、胚胎发育和基因重新编码等过程都存在重要作用,其中TET蛋白参与DNA胞嘧啶的去甲基化过程的作用机制一直是研究热点,另外,有研究发现TET与肿瘤的发生也存在联系,可能成为新的肿瘤分子标志。     

DNA主动去甲基化的Science之路

DNA甲基化是一种非常重要的表观遗传调控方式,在基因印迹、X染色体失活、转座子与外源DNA的沉默及组织特异性基因的中发挥着重要的作用。在哺乳动物的配子发生过程及从受精到着床的早期胚胎发育阶段,基因组DNA发生大规模的主动去甲基化。但去甲基化的分子机制一直是表观遗传领域的谜题。2009年,Anjana Rao及其同事发现一种DNA双氧化酶TET蛋白能够将5-甲基胞嘧啶氧化成5-羟甲基胞嘧啶,这为DNA去甲基化的机制研究开拓了新的思路。在此基础上,徐国良实验室展开了深入研究,发现TET蛋白能够进一步将5-羟甲基胞嘧啶氧化成5-羧基胞嘧啶,并发现糖苷酶TDG能够特异性地识别并切除DNA中的5-羧基胞嘧啶,进而启动碱基切除修复途径完成DNA去甲基化,从而提出了氧化作用与碱基切除修复途径协同介导的DNA主动去甲基化机制。     

5-羟甲基胞嘧啶及其TET氧合酶在神经系统发育和相关疾病中的研究进展

神经系统的正常发育是多种因素相互协调作用的结果,一旦特定因素失衡将引起相关疾病的发生。近年来不断有研究发现,DNA去甲基化过程的一类中间产物5-羟甲基胞嘧啶(5-hydroxymethylcytosine, 5hmC)作为一种新的表观遗传标记,在神经系统中高水平分布,并参与认知、记忆等重要的神经功能。5hmC的形成由氧合酶家族分子(ten-eleven translocation protein, TET)催化,在多种神经系统相关疾病中,5hmC水平和TETs分子的表达都发生改变,提示TET-5hmC表观遗传机制在复杂的神经系统发生发展过程中发挥了重要的调控作用。此外,作为基因表达调控的DNA标记物,5hmC的基因定位与基因表达水平的关系也是重要的研究方向。本文就近年来5hmC和TET家族蛋白分子在神经系统发育和相关疾病方面的重要研究发现进行了综述总结,希望为相关领域研究人员深入开展研究提供重要的思路,并为相关疾病设计治疗策略提供理论支持。     

TET蛋白的去甲基化机制及其在调控小鼠发育过程中的作用

TET(Ten-eleven translocation)蛋白家族共有3个成员,分别为TET1、TET2和TET3,均属于α-酮戊二酸(α-KG)和Fe²⁺依赖的双加氧酶,可以将5-甲基胞嘧啶(5-methylcytosine, 5 mC)氧化为5-羟甲基胞嘧啶(5-hydroxymethylcytosine, 5 hmC)、5-甲酰基胞嘧啶(5-formylcytosine, 5 fC)及5-羧基胞嘧啶(5-carboxylcytosine, 5 caC)。研究表明,TET蛋白通过不同机制以主动或被动的方式调控DNA去甲基化,且去甲基化的活性可能受其他因子的调控。TET蛋白广泛参与哺乳动物发育过程的调节,其中在原始生殖细胞的形成、胚胎发育、干细胞多能性及神经和脑发育等方面发挥了重要作用。TET蛋白生物功能的发现为表观遗传学研究开辟了全新的研究领域,而且相关研究结果对拓展生命科学研究具有重要意义。文章综述了TET蛋白家族的结构、去甲基化分子机制及在小鼠发育过程中的作用,为深入了解TET蛋白的功能提供理论基础。     

表观遗传新标志物5hmC的研究进展

5-羟甲基胞嘧啶(5-hydroxymethylcytosine,5hmC)作为表观遗传的新标志物,已引起人们的极大兴趣.5hmC由TET家族酶催化氧化5-甲基胞嘧啶(5-methylcytosine,5mC)产生,被称为高等生物基因组DNA的"第六碱基".5hmC不仅可以影响基因组结构及功能,还在早期胚胎发育中发挥重要的作用.本文综述了5hmC的代谢通路、生物学功能、在基因组的分布及分析方法的研究进展.     

TET家族DNA羟化酶与5-hmC在肿瘤中的作用机制的研究进展

DNA甲基化失调引起基因表达异常是表观遗传学的一个显著特点。目前已知,由DNA甲基转移酶（DNA methyltransferases,DMNTs）催化DNA甲基化,其酶基因突变或表达异常引起DNA甲基化水平的改变。近期研究发现了一种DNA去甲基化酶--TET（Ten-Eleventranslocation）家族DNA羟化酶,能通过多种途径催化5-甲基胞嘧啶（5．methylcytosine,5-mC）去甲基化,从而调控DNA基化的平衡。5-羟甲基胞嘧啶（5-hydroxymethylcytosine,5-hmC）作为DNA去甲基化多重步骤中重要的中间产物,其水平在肿瘤的发生和发展时期发生显著变化。该文从TET家族蛋白展开,介绍TET蛋白的结构、功能及作用机制以及多种人类肿瘤中丁E丁家族基因与5-hmC水平的相关性及其对肿瘤发生发展、诊断预后等临床意义的研究进展。     

5-羟甲基胞嘧啶在脑发育和神经系统疾病中的作用

大脑的发育和神经系统疾病的发生发展是极其复杂的过程,涉及多种因素. 大量研究证实,表观遗传调控系统,如组蛋白甲基化、组蛋白乙酰化和DNA甲基化,是其中一类重要的调控因素. 近年来研究发现,DNA去甲基化中间产物5-羟甲基胞嘧啶(5hmC)是一种新的表观遗传标记形式,且在神经元内呈现非常高的水平. 这暗示5hmC可能在脑的生长发育以及中枢神经系统疾病的发生发展过程中有着重要的调控作用. 本文综述了近年来该领域的重要研究进展,并且提出一些今后的研究展望.     

哺乳动物DNA甲基化修饰的动态调控机制

DNA甲基化是最主要的表观遗传修饰之一,主要发生在胞嘧啶第五位碳原子上,称为5-甲基胞嘧啶。哺乳动物DNA甲基化由从头DNA甲基转移酶DNMT3A/3B在胚胎发育早期建立。细胞分裂过程中甲基化模式的维持由DNA甲基转移酶DNMT1实现。TET家族蛋白氧化5-甲基胞嘧啶成为5-羟甲基胞嘧啶、5-醛基胞嘧啶和5-羧基胞嘧啶,从而起始DNA的去甲基化过程。这些DNA甲基化修饰酶精确调节DNA甲基化的动态过程,在整个生命发育过程中发挥重要作用,其失调也与多种疾病发生密切相关。本文对近年来DNA甲基化修饰酶的结构与功能研究进行讨论。     

DNA羟甲基化与表观遗传学调控

表观遗传学中的DNA甲基化与疾病的发生发展密不可分. DNA甲基化中的5-甲基胞嘧啶易发生氧化形成5 羟甲基胞嘧啶.此过程又称为羟甲基化修饰,已成为表观遗传学研究的一种新热点.羟甲基化与10-11易位家族蛋白（ten-eleven translocation,TET）的作用密切相关,它参与了基因的表达调控以及DNA去甲基化过程. 最近的羟甲基化研究主要集中在癌症和精神性疾病.针对日趋增多的相关研究,本文对DNA羟甲基化进行了全景式综述.     

A sensitive mass spectrometry method for simultaneous quantification of DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation levels in biological samples

The recent discovery of 5-hydroxymethyl-cytosine (5hmC) in embryonic stem cells and postmitotic neurons has triggered the need for quantitative measurements of both 5-methyl-cytosine (5mC) and 5hmC in the same sample. We have developed a method using liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry with multiple reaction monitoring (LC–ESI–MS/MS–MRM) to simultaneously measure levels of 5mC and 5hmC in digested genomic DNA. This method is fast, robust, and accurate, and it is more sensitive than the current 5hmC quantitation methods such as end labeling with thin layer chromatography and radiolabeling by glycosylation. Only 50 ng of digested genomic DNA is required to measure the presence of 0.1% 5hmC in DNA from mouse embryonic stem cells. Using this procedure, we show that human induced pluripotent stem cells exhibit a dramatic increase in 5mC and 5hmC levels compared with parental fibroblast cells, suggesting a dynamic regulation of DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation during cellular reprogramming.     

极性生长的细胞中胞嘧啶甲基化的动态变化及其对GABA信号的响应

DNA胞嘧啶(C)的甲基化(5m C)在植物发育过程中具有重要的调节作用,多种环境因子如逆境胁迫、植物内/外源性因子等均会触发DNA甲基化的变化。为探讨γ-氨基丁酸(GABA)对植物发育的可能调节机制,本研究以极性生长的烟草花粉管和拟南芥根为材料,分析5m C的含量及其对GABA信号的响应。结果表明,1.0 mmol/L GABA能显著促进烟草花粉管和拟南芥根的极性生长;同时,GABA处理使烟草花粉管和拟南芥根的基因组中5m C含量显著降低、5-羟基胞嘧啶(5hm C)含量显著增加。5hm C是5m C去甲基化途径中的一个重要中间产物,本研究证实了GABA可以作为一种重要的外源信号调节DNA甲基化的动态变化。     

Loss of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine is linked to gene body hypermethylation in kidney cancer

Both 5-methylcytosine (5mC) and its oxidized form 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) have been proposed to be involved in tumorigenesis. Because the readout of the broadly used 5mC mapping method, bisulfite sequencing (BS-seq), is the sum of 5mC and 5hmC levels, the 5mC/5hmC patterns and relationship of these two modifications remain poorly understood. By profiling real 5mC (BS-seq corrected by Tet-assisted BS-seq, TAB-seq) and 5hmC (TAB-seq) levels simultaneously at single-nucleotide resolution, we here demonstrate that there is no global loss of 5mC in kidney tumors compared with matched normal tissues. Conversely, 5hmC was globally lost in virtually all kidney tumor tissues. The 5hmC level in tumor tissues is an independent prognostic marker for kidney cancer, with lower levels of 5hmC associated with shorter overall survival. Furthermore, we demonstrated that loss of 5hmC is linked to hypermethylation in tumors compared with matched normal tissues, particularly in gene body regions. Strikingly, gene body hypermethylation was significantly associated with silencing of the tumor-related genes. Downregulation of IDH1 was identified as a mechanism underlying 5hmC loss in kidney cancer. Restoring 5hmC levels attenuated the invasion capacity of tumor cells and suppressed tumor growth in a xenograft model. Collectively, our results demonstrate that loss of 5hmC is both a prognostic marker and an oncogenic event in kidney cancer by remodeling the DNA methylation pattern.     

Placental 5-methylcytosine and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine patterns associate with size at birth

Altered placental function as a consequence of aberrant imprinted gene expression may be one mechanism mediating the association between low birth weight and increased cardiometabolic disease risk. Imprinted gene expression is regulated by epigenetic mechanisms, particularly DNA methylation (5mC) at differentially methylated regions (DMRs). While 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) is also present at DMRs, many techniques do not distinguish between 5mC and 5hmC. Using human placental samples, we show that the expression of the imprinted gene CDKN1C associates with birth weight. Using specific techniques to map 5mC and 5hmC at DMRs controlling the expression of CDKN1C and the imprinted gene IGF2, we show that 5mC enrichment at KvDMR and DMR0, and 5hmC enrichment within the H19 gene body, associate positively with birth weight. Importantly, the presence of 5hmC at imprinted DMRs may complicate the interpretation of DNA methylation studies in placenta; future studies should consider using techniques that distinguish between, and permit quantification of, both modifications.     

Simple and accurate single base resolution analysis of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine by catalytic oxidative bisulfite sequencing using micelle incarcerated oxidants

Oxidation of 5-methylcytosine (5mC) is catalyzed by ten-eleven translocation (TET) enzymes to produce 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) and following oxidative products. The oxidized nucleotides were shown to be the intermediates for DNA demethylation, as the nucleotides are removed by base excision repair system initiated by thymine DNA glycosylase. A simple and accurate method to determine initial oxidation product 5hmC at single base resolution in genomic DNA is necessary to understand demethylation mechanism. Recently, we have developed a new catalytic oxidation reaction using micelle-incarcerated oxidants to oxidize 5hmC to form 5-formylcytosine (5fC), and subsequent bisulfite sequencing can determine the positions of 5hmC in DNA. In the present study, we described the optimization of the catalytic oxidative bisulfite sequencing (coBS-seq), and its application to the analysis of 5hmC in genomic DNA at single base resolution in a quantitative manner. As the oxidation step showed quite low damage on genomic DNA, the method allows us to down scale the sample to be analyzed.     

5‐Hydroxymethylcytosine: a new kid on the epigenetic block?

The discovery of the Ten‐Eleven‐Translocation (TET) oxygenases that catalyze the hydroxylation of 5‐methylcytosine (5mC) to 5‐hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) has triggered an avalanche of studies aiming to resolve the role of 5hmC in gene regulation if any. Hitherto, TET1 is reported to bind to CpG‐island (CGI) and bivalent promoters in mouse embryonic stem cells, whereas binding at DNAseI hypersensitive sites (HS) had escaped previous analysis. Significant enrichment/accumulation of 5hmC but not 5mC can indeed be detected at bivalent promoters and at DNaseI‐HS. Surprisingly, however, 5hmC is not detected or present at very low levels at CGI promoters notwithstanding the presence of TET1. Our meta‐analysis of DNA methylation profiling points to potential issues with regard to the various methodologies that are part of the toolbox used to detect 5mC and 5hmC. Discrepancies between published studies and technical limitations prevent an unambiguous assignment of 5hmC as a ‘true’ epigenetic mark, that is, read and interpreted by other factors and/or as a transiently accumulating intermediary product of the conversion of 5mC to unmodified cytosines.