重要启示

正为更好地推动化石保护、化石科普和相关博物馆的发展,《化石》杂志和化石网积极协助中国地质学会化石保护研究分会,在今年6至12月面向全国开展"我心目中最美的化石产地和最美化石博物馆——中国十大化石产地和中国十大古生物博物馆评选活动"。欢迎所有化石爱好者积极参与活动。     

化石保存的方式

地层中的化石按其保存特点,可分为实体化石、模铸化石、遗迹化石和化学化石4大类。1实体化石指由生物遗体的全部或一部分保存而成的化石,其中大多数保存了生物的硬体部分,如外壳、骨骼等。实体化石又可分为未变实体化石、微变硬体化石和石化化石3种。1．1未变实体化石特指古代生物软体部分尚保存的化石。著名的西伯利亚和阿拉斯加第四纪冻土中发现的猛码象,其毛、皮、内脏等都保存完好,甚至有些个体的肉在发现后,还可被食肉兽吃掉。从它们胃中的残留食物及抱子花粉,可以推知它们的食性。其次,如保存在第四纪搪玻中的昆虫化石,其中…     

贵州寒武系杷榔组杷榔化石库埋藏学初步研究———以剑河辣子寨剖面为例*

贵州剑河辣子寨村辣子寨剖面杷榔组的杷榔动物群是近期发现的一个化石丰度较高且较复杂多样的动物群。该产地的化石库含有两个化石富集的层位,即下化石层和上化石层。通过对两个化石富集层的岩石结构、构造、沉积特征、生物类群组成及化石丰度和保存特征等方面的分析研究表明,下化石层与上化石层内化石组合和埋藏特征存在较大差异。下化石层类群组成多样、化石丰度较高,以掘头虫类三叶虫、三叶形虫Naraoia、大型双瓣壳节肢动物Isoxys、Tuzoia及古蠕虫、海绵等为主,且化石主要保存在事件沉积层内,保存质量较好,为外陆棚沉积环境下大量生物个体发生原位快速沉积埋藏作用形成。而上化石层内化石以具硬壳的三叶虫为主,有较大的埋藏量,少量或碎片状的Naraoia,Isoxys,且这类化石数量少,主要在背景层中保存,可能为静水沉积时,沉积界面积累了大量生物遗体并暴露于基底表面一定时间后,再被沉积物逐渐堆积掩埋而形成,为生物遗壳的原位或近原位埋藏。     

陕南末元古代高家山生物群主要化石类群及其特征

末元古代高家山生物群是以骨骼化石为主,兼有软躯体后生动物及宏观藻类化石的一个多门类化石组合,是目前已知最上且最为多样化的骨骼化石生物群。化石主要产于上震旦统灯影组高家山段中上部,时限约５６５－５４３Ｍａ。目前虽然尚难对其进行系统的生物学分类,但根据化石的形态特征可以划分为以下几个类群,即具矿化壁的骨骼类群,包括管状化石、锥管状化石、瓶状化石、杯状化石和疑难化石等,以及蠕形动物化石类群,遗迹化石类群     

粪化石在古生态研究中的应用综述*

粪化石(coprolite)是石化的动物粪便, 而广义上粪化石(bromalite)是石化的动物消化物、排泄物和排出物的总称。作为一类重要遗迹化石, 粪化石蕴含了大量实体化石难以提供的生物学信息, 为古生态学研究提供以下依据: 1)粪化石作为媒介帮助理解远古动物的行为习性、消化系统的结构和功能、食谱特征以及古生态系统食物链/食物网; 2)粪化石中保存的古寄生虫线索能有效地解读古生物寄生关系和某些常见肠道寄生虫的起源问题; 3)新生代以来古人类粪化石证据可以直接解开早期古人类的食谱、疾病特征及其迁移路径; 4)中、新生代以来的粪化石中保存的植物残留信息(孢粉化石和植硅体)是重建古植被面貌、恢复古气候和探索早期动植物关系的重要依据。本文回顾了粪化石研究历史, 并针对粪化石在上述古生态各研究方向的最新进展进行了系统总结和综述, 认为粪化石可有效解读古生态。文章最后对粪化石的最新研究技术方法(如CT扫描技术)及未来发展方向进行了展望。     

中国遗迹化石研究80年

中国遗迹化石研究经历了零星(1929-1978)、系统(1978-2004)和创新(2004～)研究3阶段.在前寒武纪一寒武纪之交遗迹化石研究;海相遗迹化石及其古环境和古生态意义研究;陆相遗迹化石及其与能源形成环境关系研究;前寒武纪遗迹化石与后生动物的起源与演化研究;拓扑遗迹分析;遗迹化石在浊流、风暴事件和层序地层研究中的应用;复杂遗迹化石的地球生物学研究和遗迹化石模拟与可视化研究8个方面取得了显著的进展和成就.研究队伍偏少且不稳定;原创、系统、有深度、有影响的研究成果不多;缺少有力度的学科交叉和国际合作是存在的主要问题.加强遗迹学人才和团队培育,稳定支持几个有特色的遗迹学研究方向;基于遗迹学资料的系统积累,拓展和深化遗迹化石的地球生物学研究;加强遗迹化石在海、陆相油气资源评价和储层研究中的应用;创新遗迹化石的研究方法手段,重视和加强现代生物遗迹研究是值得今后进一步关注的问题.     

化石文化

化石文化刘晓峰化石,大自然赐予人类的珍贵资源之一,历来为人类所关注。化石给人类带来了丰富多彩的生活,并从中创造和累积了独特的文化──化石文化。－、化石文化的含义化石,是经自然作用保存在各地质历史时期岩层中的生物遗体或遗迹。化石文化是人类在发现、认识、...     

化石的形成、发掘及标本制作——以鸟类化石为例

化石作为古生物学的主要研究对象,是探索地球历史和生命演化史的重要见证。主要介绍了化石的概念、保存条件和形成过程,并以鸟类化石为例,就化石的野外发掘和室内修复进行了简要概括。     

邮票上的古生物化石

近来笔者喜欢收藏古生物化石,每逢节假日便外出采集化石。由于有了这个爱好的原故,便对邮票上的古生物化石产生了收藏兴趣。化石邮票作为专题性的收集,对收藏化石标本必定带来许多意想不到的收获,化石邮票的图案具有知识性、史料性和观赏娱乐性。我国邮电部于１９５８年４月１５日发行了一套志号为特双的“中国古生物”的邮票,全套三枚。邮票上的图案分别是“蒿里山三叶虫化石”,“禄丰恐龙化石”,“肿骨鹿化石”（见上图）。笔者最近收集了外国化石邮票,图案分别为“恐龙化石”、“鱼化石”、“鸵鸟化石”、“始祖鸟化石”、“蜘蛛…     

“中国美丽乡村·万峰林峰会”系列活动之“化石峰会暨化石村规划研讨会”在贵州兴义召开

正2016年3月9日,来自全国17个省(自治区)、市的地质古生物化石保护、科研和管理方面的领导、专家、学者近百人聚集在贵州黔西南布依族苗族自治州兴义市,召开了"化石峰会暨化石村规划研讨会"。会议由中国地质学会化石保护研究分会和黔西南州人民政府主办,主题为化石村规划与保护。所谓化石村,是指具有化石资源产出、具有保护研究基础和一定乡风民俗,在国家古生物化石专家委员会办公室指导下,由单位和个人认领并支持建设的村落。所谓化石村建设,就是以化石产地的行政村为单元,以营造乡村化石元素为形式,以化石保护与科普教育走向田间地头、村头巷尾为内容,以提     

步林在青海柴达木盆地的早期工作记录——经典脊椎动物化石地点与现代地层框架的解译(英文)

1931 ～ 1932 年,博格·步林两次率领中瑞考察团( 又名斯文·赫定考察团) 到青海省柴达木盆地东部进行考察,在克鲁克湖与托素湖地区首次发现了丰富的新近纪哺乳动物化石。这批化石成为我国早期青藏高原古生物研究的奠基石。直至今日,双湖地区仍是青藏高原脊椎动物化石最丰富、研究程度最高的地区。柴达木盆地新近纪的堆积巨厚且连续,地层构造相对简单,盆地北缘地层出露好,是研究陆生哺乳动物演化的理想地点。然而,双湖地区地层的时代跨度超过 13 My,厚度接近 4600 m,如果化石层位不明,很容易引起动物群成分的混乱。步林对此似乎缺乏足够的认识,对所有采集的化石未做分层处理,导致后人对"柴达木动物群"年代的解释引起不少异议。步林并非对地层不重视。恰恰相反,他如同在甘肃塔奔布鲁克盆地的工作中那样,在缺乏地形图和地质资料的条件下做了大量的基础地层工作。他利用明显的地物( 山顶)和地质构造( 背斜) 作为参照系统,仔细地记录了化石的出露地点,并编制了一些草图。步林去世后,家属把他的野外记录留给赫定档案馆( Svan Hedin Archives) ,在斯德哥尔摩分几处收藏。遗憾的是,如同塔奔布鲁克盆地的情况,步林未能发表很多十分关键的化石地点资料,而发表的地质记录却被多数人忽略,所出版的游记也鲜为人知,个人档案记录更是深埋于历史的文献中。直到 1999 年,本文第一作者才首次接触到一些步林的野外原始资料。经过近 10 年多次对赫定档案馆的访问和对步林原始记录反复的野外核实,最终才将步林的经典地点结合进现代地层顺序的框架中。本文是继对步林塔奔布鲁克盆地燕丹图动物群经典地点与地层的研究后,进一步对其柴达木盆地化石地点的厘定与复原,是本系列文章之二。目的是将过去混淆于各地点的动物群逐一解译,将不同时代的化石分子置于现代地层与年代框架之中。幸运的是,步林的诸多野外记录都保存完好,结合发表的个人游记及地质记录,他所发表的多数哺乳动物化石都可以恢复到一定地层范围之内,尚能尽量减小经典化石地点的不确定性。本文试图整理步林未发表的珍贵资料,通过综合考证其他已发表的信息,结合作者在 1998 ～2010 年多次野外考察的结果,以期理顺柴达木地区经典化石点与现代地层框架的关系。这里将着重探讨经典化石点的生物地层学问题,并将步林柴达木盆地化石地点的野外记录资料译成英文附入文后,至于我们在柴达木盆地发现的其他化石点暂不涉及。步林主要在三个地区采集了化石: 托素湖北岸、怀头他拉村南及泉水梁火车站附近。尽管步林清楚地意识到其化石来自几千米厚的地层,但他统称其为柴达木动物群,成为以后混乱的主要原因。根据对柴达木新近纪的地层古生物考察,我们至少可以辨认出 4 个动物群: 中中新世欧龙布鲁克动物群、晚中新世早期托素动物群、深沟动物群和早上新世怀头他拉动物群。( 1) 中中新世欧龙布鲁克动物群。化石主要产于剖面底部克鲁克背斜两翼接近轴部的红色泥岩及绿色砂岩中。该动物群的成员发现较少,步林和我们都找到不多,主要来自两个地点: 怀头他拉剖面步林 165 号营地附近及泉水梁火车站东北 800 m 左右处。包括以下几个种类( 括号内为步林的化石编号; 该系列号码在步林的柴达木专著中广泛应用) : Olonbulukia tsaidamensis ( Nr. 356) ,Lagomeryx tsaidamensis ( Nr. 361) ,Stephanocemas( Nr. 368,407) ,? Dicroceros ( Nr. 372,397) ,? Eostyloceros ( Nr. 396,399,401) ,Acero-rhinus tsaidamensis ( Nr. 330,346,374,381) 。( 2) 晚中新世早期托素动物群。该动物群最初发现于托素湖北岸的狭长露头。步林对该点的记录最详细,其中各化石层位都被我们一一找到。托素湖的含哺乳动物化石层位局限在诺令根河( 连接克鲁克湖与托素湖之间的小河) 北岸 100 m 的地层中,是步林所有化石点中能最精确地确定层位的一个点( 即步林托素湖化石点都可以恢复到该段 100m 地层中) 。根据目前古地磁测量结果,该点 100 m 地层可以精确到 0. 3 Ma 范围之内。相当于含托素动物群层位的化石地点在怀头他拉剖面中也少量存在,但多数化石不特征,估计步林在此也找到不多。托素动物群最丰富的化石点在泉水梁车站东南的狭长露头。步林称做"一般条带"( "General Strips") 。在厚度不到250 m,北西-南东方向延伸达8 km的地层中,化石均匀散布、保存完好,是柴达木目前最丰富的化石点。托素动物群包括以下种类( 括号内为步林的化石编号) : "Ictitherium sp. "( Nr. 542) ,Tsaidamotherium hedini( Nr. 447,457) ,Tossunnoria pseudibex ( Nr. 449,481,537) ,Qurliqnoria cheni ( Nr. 441) ,Qurliqnoria sp. ( Nr. 508) ,Olonbulukia tsaidamensis ( Nr. 429) ,Chalicotheriidae indet.( Nr. 317) ,Hipparion sp. ( Nr. 352,444,467,493,498,500,501,523,553) ,Acerorhi-nus tsaidamensis ( Nr. 418,430,438,456,459,488,502-4,511,516,525-7,536,538,555-6) ,? Tetralophodon ( Nr. 458,487,524,530,534) ,Giraffidae indet. ( Nr. 316,320) ,? Eostyloceros ( Nr. 334,349) 。另外我们在泉水梁地点也找到大量化石,研究后可望增加更多的成员。泉水梁是我国少数几个三趾马出现最早的地点之一。该剖面目前还没有古地磁资料,但通过与怀头他拉古地磁剖面的对比,泉水梁三趾马出现的最低层位应大致在 C5r. 1r反向带与 C5r. 1n 正向带之间( 约 11. 12 Ma) 。另外托素动物群所代表的时代,是青藏高原首次出现独特种类的时代。牛羊科中具有高原特色的种类包括 Tsaidamotherium hedini,Tossunnoria pseudibex,Qurliqnoria cheni 和 Olonbulukia tsaidamensis,其中 Qurliqnoria cheni可能是现代藏羚羊( Pantholops) 的祖先类型。( 3) 晚中新世早期深沟动物群。深沟动物群是根据德令哈南部深沟剖面的化石建立的。产该动物群的地层虽然在怀头他拉剖面中段出露,但目前还没找到特征的化石。步林的个别不确定的化石有可能属于深沟动物群。邱铸鼎和李强最近( 2008) 对深沟的小哺乳动物做了详细的描述,认为与陕西蓝田霸河组下部的小哺乳动物组合最接近。( 4) 早上新世怀头他拉动物群。怀头他拉动物群也处于怀头他拉剖面上部化石不丰富的地段。从步林的野外记录中,惟一能够比较确定的化石是一些驼鸟蛋片。我们也仅增加了几种小哺乳动物( 未研) 。     

A Giant Chelonioid Turtle from the Late Cretaceous of Morocco with a Suction Feeding Apparatus Unique among Tetrapods

Background

Secondary adaptation to aquatic life occurred independently in several amniote lineages, including reptiles during the Mesozoic and mammals during the Cenozoic. These evolutionary shifts to aquatic environments imply major morphological modifications, especially of the feeding apparatus. Mesozoic (250–65 Myr) marine reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, mosasaurid squamates, crocodiles, and turtles, exhibit a wide range of adaptations to aquatic feeding and a broad overlap of their tooth morphospaces with those of Cenozoic marine mammals. However, despite these multiple feeding behavior convergences, suction feeding, though being a common feeding strategy in aquatic vertebrates and in marine mammals in particular, has been extremely rarely reported for Mesozoic marine reptiles.

Principal Findings

A relative of fossil protostegid and dermochelyoid sea turtles, Ocepechelon bouyai gen. et sp. nov. is a new giant chelonioid from the Late Maastrichtian (67 Myr) of Morocco exhibiting remarkable adaptations to marine life (among others, very dorsally and posteriorly located nostrils). The 70-cm-long skull of Ocepechelon not only makes it one of the largest marine turtles ever described, but also deviates significantly from typical turtle cranial morphology. It shares unique convergences with both syngnathid fishes (unique long tubular bony snout ending in a rounded and anteriorly directed mouth) and beaked whales (large size and elongated edentulous jaws). This striking anatomy suggests extreme adaptation for suction feeding unmatched among known turtles.

Conclusion/Significance

The feeding apparatus of Ocepechelon, a bony pipette-like snout, is unique among tetrapods. This new taxon exemplifies the successful systematic and ecological diversification of chelonioid turtles during the Late Cretaceous. This new evidence for a unique trophic specialization in turtles, along with the abundant marine vertebrate faunas associated to Ocepechelon in the Late Maastrichtian phosphatic beds of Morocco, further supports the hypothesis that marine life was, at least locally, very diversified just prior to the Cretaceous/Palaeogene (K/Pg) biotic crisis.     

Divergence time estimates for major cephalopod groups: evidence from multiple genes

This is the first study to use both molecular and fossil data to date the divergence of taxa within the coleoid cephalopods (octopus, squid, cuttlefish). A dataset including sequences from three nuclear and three mitochondrial genes (3415 bp in total) was used to investigate the evolutionary divergences within the group. Divergence time analyses were performed using the Thorne/Kishino method of analysis which allows multiple constraints from the fossil record and permits rates of molecular evolution to vary on different branches of a phylogenetic tree. The data support a Paleozoic origin of the Orders Vampyromorpha, Octopoda and the majority of the extant higher level decapodiform taxa. These estimated divergence times are considerably older than paleontological estimates. The major lineages within the Order Octopoda were estimated to have diverged in the Mesozoic, with a radiation of many taxa around the Cretaceous/Cenozoic boundary. Higher level decapodiform phylogenetic relationships appear to have been obscured due to an ancient diversification of this group. © The Willi Hennig Society 2006.     

虔州豫俊兽(Yubaatarqianzhouensissp.nov.):江西赣州盆地首例晚白垩世哺乳动物化石*

本文报道了产自江西省赣州市上白垩统赣县河口组的一件多瘤齿兽类标本, 这是江西省报道的首例中生代哺乳动物化石。此标本头骨后部横向扩展, 额骨较小, 后端尖并构成眼眶的内侧边缘, M1具三列齿尖, 系统发育分析支持其归入纹齿兽超科。与河南晚白垩世的中原豫俊兽形态较为相似, 但是两者间也存在一些明显的区别, 因此建立一个豫俊兽属新种——虔州豫俊兽(Yubaatar qianzhouensis sp. nov.), 鉴定特征为: m1齿尖式为7︰6; M2齿尖式为1︰3︰3; m1颊侧后部存在一道小脊; 虔州豫俊兽m2和m1的长度比例小于中原豫俊兽; 冠状突呈楔状, 末端尖。虔州豫俊兽的发现不仅扩展了晚白垩世多瘤齿兽类在东亚地区的地理分布和物种多样性, 并且也扩展了中生代哺乳动物的地理分布。     

La radiation des Mammifères : phylogénie et innovations évolutives,progrès récents

The radiation of Mammals: recent advances concerning their phylogeny and evolutionary innovations. In the 3,5 billion years of the History of the Life, that of Mammals seems to us all the more brief that their future seems to have deceived in some million years, at the very beginning of the Cenozoic times. For their understanding, palaeontologists as well as molecularists try to build up the phylogenetic tree of the mammals. Here some of the reasons for the conflicts and controversies between both communities are analysed. Also the main evolutionary novelties as observed in Early Tertiary mammals are described. This catalogue shed light on this extraordinary event. To cite this article: J.-L. Hartenberger, C.R. Palevol 2 (2003).     

Congruent phylogenetic and fossil signatures of mammalian diversification dynamics driven by Tertiary abiotic change

Computational methods for estimating diversification rates from extant species phylogenetic trees have become abundant in evolutionary research. However, little evidence exists about how their outcome compares to a complementary and direct source of information: the fossil record. Furthermore, there is virtually no direct test for the congruence of evolutionary rates based on these two sources. This task is only achievable in clades with both a well‐known fossil record and a complete phylogenetic tree. Here, we compare the evolutionary rates of ruminant mammals as estimated from their vast paleontological record—over 1200 species spanning 50 myr—and their living‐species phylogeny. Significantly, our results revealed that the ruminant's fossil record and phylogeny reflect congruent evolutionary processes. The concordance is especially strong for the last 25 myr, when living groups became a dominant part of ruminant diversity. We found empirical support for previous hypotheses based on simulations and neontological data: The pattern captured by the tree depends on how clade specific the processes are and which clades are involved. Also, we report fossil evidence for a postradiation speciation slowdown coupled with constant, moderate extinction in the Miocene. The recent deceleration in phylogenetic rates is connected to rapid extinction triggered by recent climatic fluctuations.     

Taphonomy of Sheridan College Quarry 1, Buffalo, Wyoming: Implications for reconstructing historic dinosaur localities including Utterback's 1902-1910 Morrison dinosaur expeditions

The Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation has yielded some of the most important, voluminous and diverse dinosaur bonebeds in western North America, yet many of its historic sites were excavated during the celebrated period of vertebrate paleontology in western North America referred to as the first and second “Great Dinosaur Rush” (1870-1910s). Because of the large quantity of fossils collected during this era, a considerable amount of data pertaining to patterns of sedimentation, preservation, and paleoecology across broad portions of the Morrison Formation (and indeed many other Mesozoic and Cenozoic units) is still poorly understood. This paper critically re-evaluates the Sheridan College Quarry 1 dinosaur bonebed which lies along the western rim of the Powder River Basin in the region of localities excavated during Utterback's expeditions in the 1900s. Sedimentologically, the bonebed is interpreted as having been formed by episodic flooding events affecting the proximal floodplain depocenter of a meandering river system. Limited evidence of bone abrasion or rounding and progressive upsection changes in bone orientations suggest that minimal transport occurred, but that at least four episodes of overbank flooding resulted in the concentration and burial of attritional, time averaged vertebrate skeletal material that accumulated in topographic lows on the floodplain. Taphonomic analysis indicates that multiple unassociated to partially associated fossil elements excavated represent at least three taxa of sauropod dinosaurs, whereas isolated elements from the site indicate the presence of several other small vertebrate taxa. This work provides significant new information not only about the Sheridan College Quarry 1, but also about local sedimentary and taphonomic conditions that were likely influential to burial and preservation of other nearby Morrison dinosaur localities in the Big Horn Mountains, most notably those excavated during the famous Utterback expeditions. This study highlights the research potential in reconstructing lost data for historic dinosaur localities.     

Historical biogeography of scarabaeine dung beetles

Abstract Aim (1) To review briefly global biogeographical patterns in dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae), a group whose evolutionary history has been dominated by ecological specialization to vertebrate dung in warmer climates. (2) To develop hypotheses accounting for the evolution of these patterns. Location Six principal biogeographical regions: Palaearctic, Oriental, Afrotropical, Australasia, Neotropical, Nearctic and five outlying islands or island groups harbouring endemic genera: Caribbean, Madagascar, Mauritius, New Caledonia, New Zealand. Methods Major patterns of tribal, generic and species distribution are investigated using cluster analysis, ordination, parsimony analysis of endemism and track analysis. Attempts are made to resolve biogeographical patterns with findings in the fields of plate tectonics, fossil and evolutionary history, plus phylogeny of both mammals and dung beetles. Results Because of conflict between published findings, it is uncertain at what point in time density of dinosaur dung, mammal dung or both became sufficiently great to select for specialized habits in dung beetles. However, biogeographical evidence would suggest a Mesozoic origin followed by further taxonomic radiation during the Cenozoic, possibly in response to the increasing size and diversity of mammalian dung types in South America and Afro‐Eurasia. Proportional generic distribution in fourteen tribes and subtribes showed four principal biogeographical patterns: (1) southerly biased Gondwanaland distribution, (2) Americas or (3) Madagascar endemism, and (4) northerly biased, Afro‐Eurasian‐centred distribution with limited numbers of genera also widespread in other regions. Proportional composition of faunas in eleven geographical regions indicated three principal distributional centres, East Gondwanaland fragments, Afro‐Eurasia and the Americas. These patterns probably result from three principal long‐term range expansion and vicariance events (Mesozoic: Gondwanaland interchange and fragmentation, Cenozoic: Afro‐Eurasian/Nearctic interchange and the Great American interchange). It is suggested that old vicariance caused by the Mesozoic fragmentation of Gondwanaland leads to a high degree of regional endemism at generic or tribal level across one or more Gondwanaland tracks. In contrast, it is suggested that the more recent Cenozoic range expansions occurred primarily towards northern regions leading to endemism primarily at species level. These Cenozoic radiations were facilitated by the re‐linking of continents, either because of tectonic plate movements (Africa to Eurasia in Miocene), climatically induced sea‐level change (Afro‐Eurasia to Nearctic in Miocene and Pleistocene), or similar coupled with orogenics (Nearctic to Neotropical in Pliocene). Speciation has followed vicariance either because of climatic change or physical barrier development. These recent range expansions probably occurred principally along an Afro‐Eurasian land track to the Nearctic and Neotropical and an Americas land track northwards from the Neotropics to the Nearctic, with limited dispersal from Eurasia to Australia, probably across a sea barrier. This accounts for the overall, spatially constrained, biogeographical pattern comprising large numbers of species‐poor genera endemic to a single biogeographical region and fewer more species‐rich genera, many of which show wider biogeographical distributions. In most southerly regions (Australasia, Madagascar, Neotropical), faunal composition and generic endemism is primarily dominated by elements with Gondwanaland ancestry, which is consistent with the Gondwanaland origin claimed for Scarabaeinae. In Afro‐Eurasia (Palaearctic, Oriental, Afrotropical), generic endemism of monophyletically derived Afro‐Eurasian and widespread lineages is centred in the Afrotropical region and faunal composition is numerically dominated by Afro‐Eurasian and widespread elements. In the Nearctic region, the fauna is jointly dominated by widespread elements, derived from Afro‐Eurasia, and Gondwanaland and Americas elements derived from the Neotropical region. Main conclusions Global biogeographical patterns in scarabaeine dung beetles primarily result from Mesozoic and Cenozoic range expansion events followed by vicariance, although recent dispersal to Australia may have occurred across sea barriers. Detailed phylogenetics research is required to provide data to support dispersal/vicariance hypotheses.     

Temporal scaling of molecular evolution in primates and other mammals

Molecular clocks are routinely tested for linearity using a relative rate test and routinely calibrated against the geological time scale using a single or average paleontologically determined time of divergence between living taxa. The relative rate test is a test of parallel rate equality, not a test of rate constancy. Temporal scaling provides a test of rates, where scaling coefficients of 1.0 (isochrony) represent stochastic rate constancy. The fossil record of primates and other mammals is now known in sufficient detail to provide several independent divergence times for major taxonomic groups. Molecular difference should scale negatively or isochronically (scaling coefficients less than 1.0) with divergence time: where two or more divergence times are available, molecular difference appears to scale positively (scaling coefficient greater than 1.0). A minimum of four divergence times are required for adequate statistical power in testing the linear model: scaling is significantly nonlinear and positive in six of 11 published investigations meeting this criterion. All groups studied show some slowdown in rates of molecular change over Cenozoic time. The break from constant or increasing rates during the Mesozoic to decreasing rates during the Cenozoic appears to coincide with extraordinary diversification of placental mammals at the beginning of this era. High rates of selectively neutral molecular change may be concentrated in such discrete events of evolutionary diversification.