非人灵长类声音通讯的研究进展

声音通讯是非人灵长类研究一个重要的研究领域,有助于了解非人灵长类的社会行为、个体关系、行为进化和社会演化等,甚至对探究人类语言起源和进化等方面也具有十分重要的意义。本文通过对非人灵长类声音通讯的研究内容、影响因素和研究方法等进行了梳理,探讨非人灵长类声音通讯研究的前景和展望,旨在进一步推动国内非人灵长类声音通讯研究的深入,同时为相关研究提供借鉴和参考。     

非人灵长类的亲缘选择

亲缘选择是动物进化的重要研究领域之一,非人灵长类因具有丰富的社会网络,是亲缘选择研究领域的重要类群。动物进行亲缘选择的前提是亲缘识别,并常通过社会行为的亲缘偏向表现。因此,本文从非人灵长类的亲缘识别机制和亲缘关系对其社会行为的影响两方面进行了综述:熟悉性和表现型匹配是目前普遍认同的非人灵长类亲缘识别机制,同时这两种机制并不相互排斥,它们可能共同在灵长类的亲缘识别中起作用;在非人灵长类中,亲缘关系是影响社会行为模式的主导因子,它影响着多种灵长类个体的友好行为、攻击行为和性行为的选择,同时亲缘偏向行为在不同物种中表现不尽相同,说明亲缘选择理论可以部分解释灵长类的行为,但存在一定的局限性。本文分析了两种亲缘识别机制的异同以及在实际研究中利用亲缘选择理论解释非人灵长
类社会行为的局限及可能原因。目前,对非人灵长类社会中的亲缘选择研究正逐步深入,其中分子遗传学技术的应用是重要的推动力量。同时,依然存在诸如汉密尔顿规则参数估计和新大陆猴的亲缘选择研究案例的难点,有待研究者进一步探究。     

中国非人灵长类物种的行为偏侧研究进展

行为偏侧是指动物进行某一行为时偏好使用某一侧肢体或感觉器官。行为偏侧作为脑偏侧所对应的可观测的行为指标,是动物行为适应性进化的代表性特征之一,它在个体水平上影响着个体适合度,在群体水平上是社会性物种的一种进化稳定策略,具有重要的生态和进化意义。中国非人灵长类资源丰富,而中国非人灵长类的行为偏侧研究起步较晚,始于二十世纪八十年代。本文系统归纳中国非人灵长类物种的行为偏侧研究进展,并基于当前研究现状,为今后发展提出积极建议。     

人工投食行为对非人灵长类社会生态的影响

近年来,国内开展了对几种非人灵长类投食群的研究。借鉴日本猴(Macaca fuscata)、恒河猴(M.mulatta)和黑猩猩(Pan troglodytes)长期积累的研究经验,有利于我们减少人工投食对非人灵长类带来的不利影响,也有利于推动国内非人灵长类社会生态学的深入研究。本文通过比较这三种灵长类野生群和投食群之间的差异,量化地分析了人工投食对灵长类动物社会生态学方面的影响。结果表明在社会行为方面,人工投食会导致灵长类动物的聚集、增加争斗频率、改变个体间等级关系、延缓分群现象、影响活动域和增加新兴行为。在种群数量方面,人工投食会缩短雌性性成熟时间、增加出生率和婴猴存活率、减少成年猴死亡率。而人工投食对雄性性成熟、出生间隔等方面的影响仍需要进一步考证。最后我们讨论了人工投食行为的利弊,并建议应谨慎和妥善地实施人工投食,和对非人灵长类投食群进行合理的监管。     

非人灵长类的个性研究进展

个性的研究能够加深对群居动物个体间差异和群体的社会组织模式的了解,这使其成为非人灵长类学者关注的一个热点话题,并为社会心理学和行为生态学交叉融合发展提供新的方法与思路。本文简要总结了目前灵长类个性的分类定义、评定方法与研究内容,并详细介绍了研究进展中的突出成果：从激素变化、特定基因位点差异和环境条件3个角度解释个性形成机制;将个性在个体健康和认知中的功能应用到灵长类的饲养管理中,有效提升动物福利。为了更好地回答行为生态学理论问题,今后需进一步拓展对野生环境中非人灵长类个体的个性以及行为模式的探索,建议从性选择、社群结构以及空间动态深入研究,切实为濒危物种保护提出新的思路。     

灵长类社会玩耍的行为模式、影响因素及其功能风险

社会玩耍是指两个或两个以上个体共同参与的一种互作性玩耍行为,个体间的行为彼此适应并相互影响。社会玩耍行为在灵长类物种的社会交往过程中普遍发生,作为未成年个体一种重要的发育行为,其对个体的生存技能和成年后的繁殖成功具有重要影响。灵长类物种的社会玩耍不仅仅表现为追逐、摔跤、跳跃等一些常见行为,部分物种还发展出自己特有的行为。一般而言,社会玩耍在婴儿后期和青少年早期的发生频率最高,然后随着年龄增长直到成年时期,这类行为的平均发生频率将逐渐下降。未成年雄性个体要比同年龄段的雌性个体更喜欢玩耍,但常因物种、研究对象年龄等因素表现不同甚至相反;很多物种的个体喜欢与有亲缘关系的个体玩耍,或者与性别相同、年龄相仿、等级相近的个体玩耍。总之,非人灵长类个体社会玩耍的发育不但受环境参量如食物、场地等的影响,而且还与个体的年龄、性别、等级、亲缘关系等社群因素紧密相关。未成年个体在玩耍过程中,获得了身体机能的快速发育、完善了生存技能、建立了个体间的友好关系、增强了认识自身及适应周围环境的能力,从而为顺利过渡到成年期和履行自己的职能打好基础,但有时却需要承担玩耍过程中受伤甚至死亡的风险。玩耍作为灵长类社会的一种行为文化,对其研究有助于对人类自身行为进化的不断认识,相信这方面的理论将会得到后来者的不断创新和丰富,也期望这方面的理念及经验能被及时运用到保护繁育等实践活动中。     

非人灵长类性打搅行为研究进展

性打搅行为是指非人灵长类社群内非交配个体对正在发生性行为个体的干扰行为,该行为在非人灵长类中普遍存在,通过综述目前已知的36种非灵长类的性打搅行为的报道,探讨性打搅行为的功能和意义。性打搅行为具有更高度的种间和种内差异,种间的性打搅的方式不同、同时受到社会结构和婚配制度的影响;在种内受到性别、年龄、等级等因素的影响。结合川金丝猴性打搅的研究结果,从性打搅的类型、被打搅的反应、性打搅的功能以及相关假说等方面入手,对非人灵长类性打搅行为进行系统总结,旨在为我国相关领域的研究提供参考,为生殖行为学研究者启发思路,推动本领域的发展。     

非人灵长类社会等级现象的研究进展

等级结构在群居生活种类中普遍存在,在非人灵长类尤为突出。该主要对近年来有关灵长类等级现象的研究结果进行分析综述,认为等级现象与个体的年龄、性别、母亲的顺位以及呆在群内时间长短等自身因素相关,也反映在个体之间的攻击、理毛、爬跨和近距等社会交往行为中。等级结构在不同动物中又不尽相同,故研究中需要对具体物种做具体分析。等级现象的存在,不仅有利于动物群体的生存,而且对动物个体也是有利的。     

非人灵长类种群数量调查方法综述

监测估算野生动物的种群数量是保护的核心工作。由于气候变化和人类活动的影响,野生动物种群常处于不稳定的状态。非人灵长类是动物界的高等类群,具有复杂的社会行为、丰富的物种多样性,全球有701种 (含亚种),生活在多种类型的栖息地中,包括热带雨林、沼泽森林、红树林、次生林、落叶林、季雨林、山地森林,和包含孤存林、长廊森林、热带旱生林、山地草甸、地中海灌木林的稀树草原和干草原,以及荒漠、干旱的山地,甚至是雪地。绝大多数非人灵长类处于濒危的状态,长期有效的监测对于灵长类的保护十分重要。物种多样性和栖息地类型的多样性使得灵长类种群数量的调查方法多种多样。本文归纳总结了目前常用的非人灵长类种群数量调查方法的类型、基本原理、适用场景和局限性,并以研究实例加以分析;介绍了无人机、热成像、计算机学习系统等新技术应用在调查方法中的进展,希望为今后的非人灵长类野外数量调查、种群监测提供参考和启发。     

非人灵长类个体的迁移与扩散

迁移现象在群居动物中普遍存在、在非人灵长类中尤为突出。在非人灵长类中,大多数的迁移表现出强烈的雄性偏向性和雌性不进行迁移的形式。在一些少数的物种中,也存在雌雄双方都进行迁移以及雌性偏向性迁移而雄性不迁移的形式。群居种类、一夫一妻制种类、独居种类的迁移模式上各有特色且不尽相同,这是动物社群结构多样性的体现。驱赶和异性的吸引是推动个体迁移的两大动力,驱赶多发生在一雄多雌的社群中,异性吸引多发生在无亲缘关系的个体之间。个体迁移过程,是个体付出与收益的平衡。迁移不仅是非人灵长类动物生活史中的一个重要环节,同时在不同种群间个体基因交流上也有明显的作用。     

Evidence for specificity of cultivable bacteria associated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal spores

Bacteria associated with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal spores may play functional roles in interactions between AM fungi, plant hosts and defence against plant pathogens. To study AM fungal spore-associated bacteria (AMB) with regard to diversity, source effects (AM fungal species, plant host) and antagonistic properties, we isolated AMB from surface-decontaminated spores of Glomus intraradices and Glomus mosseae extracted from field rhizospheres of Festuca ovina and Leucanthemum vulgare. Analysis of 385 AMB was carried out by fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) profile analysis, and some also identified using 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. The AMB were tested for capacity to inhibit growth in vitro of Rhizoctonia solani and production of fluorescent siderophores. Half of the AMB isolates could be identified to species (similarity index 0.6) within 16 genera and 36 species. AMB were most abundant in the genera Arthrobacter and Pseudomonas and in a cluster of unidentified isolates related to Stenotrophomonas. The AMB composition was affected by AM fungal species and to some extent by plant species. The occurrence of antagonistic isolates depended on AM fungal species, but not plant host, and originated from G. intraradices spores. AM fungal spores appear to host certain sets of AMB, of which some can contribute to resistance by AM fungi against plant pathogens.     

Life-Phase Related Changes in Male Loud Call Characteristics and Testosterone Levels in Wild Thomas Langurs

Males in many primate species give loud calls. Lifetime changes in loud calls may be due to either age or social changes. We examined loud call characteristics, loud call production and levels of fecal testosterone among 4 life-phases of male Thomas langurs (Presbytis thomasi): all-male band (AMB), early, middle, and late life-phase in mixed-sex groups. Discriminant analyses showed that a high percentage of loud calls could be assigned correctly to the proper life-phase. The most significant change in loud call characteristics is an increase in tonal units and duration from the AMB to the early life-phase, accompanied by a decrease in non-tonal units. Since adult AMB males have a similar age to that of early life-phase males, we suggest that social rather than age-related changes underlie the loud call differences between AMB males and early life-phase males. This could also be related to the increase in testosterone levels from the AMB to the early life-phase. In addition, we postulate that females may use loud call characteristics as a cue to choose between young and old males once they decided to leave their current male, and possibly also as a cue to decide to leave their current male as he enters his late life-phase.     

Modulation of polyene antibiotics self-association by ions from the Hofmeister series

The toxicity of the antifungal polyene antibiotic amphotericin B (AMB) has been related to its low solubility, more specifically to a self-associated form termed toxic aggregate. In addition, AMB in aqueous medium gives rise to concentration, ionic strength, and time-dependent polydisperse systems. For this reason different approaches, including the use of several lipid aggregates, have been used in attempts to improve the drug's solubility and increase its therapeutic index. In this context, understanding AMB's self-association properties should help in the preparation of less toxic formulations. Ions from the Hofmeister series alter water properties: while kosmotropes (water structure makers-sulfate, citrate, phosphate) decrease solute solubility, chaotropes (water structure breakers-perchlorate, thiocyanate, trichloroacetate, and the neutral molecule urea) have opposite effects. This work reports a study of the effect of Hofmeister ions and urea on the self-aggregation of AMB and some of its derivatives. Optical absorption and circular dichroism spectra were used to monitor monomeric and aggregated antibiotic. While kosmotropes increased aggregation in a concentration-dependent manner, the opposite was observed for chaotropes. It is shown, for the first time, that thiocyanate and trichloroacetate can induce complete AMB monomerization. The understanding of these processes at the physicochemical and molecular levels and the possibility of modulating the aggregation state of AMB and its derivatives should contribute to elucidate the mechanisms of action and toxicity of this widely used antibiotic and to develop more efficient and less toxic preparations.     

Spectroscopic studies of amphotericin B solubilized in nanoscale bilayer membranes

Nanodisks (ND) are discrete nanometer scale phospholipid bilayers whose perimeter is circumscribed by amphipathic apolipoproteins. The membranous environment of ND serves as a matrix for solubilizing the polyene antibiotic amphotericin B (AMB). The spectral properties of AMB in ND are dependent upon AMB concentration. Whereas AMB-ND prepared at a concentration of 2.5 mg AMB per 10 mg phospholipid are consistent with AMB self association in the ND membrane environment, AMB-ND prepared at 0.25 or 0.025 mg AMB per 10 mg phospholipid give rise to spectra reminiscent of AMB in organic solvent. Incubation of ND prepared at a phospholipid/AMB ratio of 400:1 (w/w) at 37 degrees C for 1 h induced a shift in absorbance and near UV circular dichroism spectra consistent with antibiotic self-association. The kinetics of this spectral transition were investigated as a function of incubation temperature. While no change in A388 nm occurred in incubations at 20 degrees C, a time-dependent decrease in A388 nm was observed at 25, 30 and 37 degrees C. Inclusion of ergosterol in the ND membrane attenuated temperature-induced AMB spectral changes. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae growth inhibition assays, ND containing self associated AMB were somewhat less effective than ND possessing a greater proportion of monomeric AMB. On the other hand, inclusion of ergosterol or cholesterol in the ND particle did not alter the growth inhibition properties of AMB-ND. The miniature membrane environment of ND provides a novel milieu for solubilization and characterization of lipophilic biomolecules.     

Interactions among Glomus irregulare, arbuscular mycorrhizal spore-associated bacteria, and plant pathogens under in vitro conditions

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi interact with bacteria (AM fungi-associated bacteria, AMB) in the mycorrhizosphere. We previously identified a set of AMB that enhance AM fungal colonization, plant growth, and inhibit pathogens. Here, we used transformed carrot root cultures in a two-compartment plate system for further in vitro studies on interactions taking place among Glomus irregulare (syn.Glomus intraradices), AMB, and plant pathogens. We found that exudates of G. irregulare stimulated growth of all ten AMB isolates tested in multi-well plates. AMB growth stimulation was observed also during co-cultivation of three of these AMB with G. irregulare in the hyphal compartment. In addition, co-cultivation stimulated growth of G. irregulare hyphae and spore production, as well as G. irregulare root colonization. GC/MS analysis in a preliminary screening of metabolites revealed differences in concentrations of several identified but also unidentified compounds in G. irregulare hyphal exudates. Exudates in presence of three different AMB isolates co-cultivated with G. irregulare contained several additional compounds that differed in amount compared with G. irregulare alone. The results indicate that G. irregulare exudates contain carbohydrates, amino acids, and unidentified compounds that could serve as a substrate to stimulate AMB growth. With regard to effects on plant pathogens, growth inhibition of Rhizoctonia solani, Verticillium dahliae, and Pectobacterium carotovorum ssp. carotovorum was evident in the presence of the AMB isolates tested together with the G. irregulare exudates. These in vitro studies suggest that G. irregulare and AMB stimulate growth of each other and that they together seem to provide an additive effect against growth of both fungal and bacterial pathogens.     

Amphotericin B induces interdigitation of apolipoprotein stabilized nanodisk bilayers

Amphotericin B nanodisks (AMB-ND) are ternary complexes of AMB, phospholipid and apolipoprotein organized as discrete nanometer scale disk-shaped bilayers. In gel filtration chromatography experiments, empty ND lacking AMB elute as a single population of particles with a molecular weight in the range of 200 kDa. AMB-ND formulated at a 4:1 phospholipid:AMB weight ratio separated into two peaks. One peak eluted at the position of control ND lacking AMB while the second peak, containing all of the AMB present in the original sample, eluted in the void volume. When ND prepared with increased AMB were subjected to gel filtration chromatography an increased proportion of phospholipid and apolipoprotein was recovered in the void volume with AMB. Native gradient gel electrophoresis corroborated the gel filtration chromatography data and electron microscopy studies revealed an AMB concentration-dependent heterogeneity in ND particle size. Stability studies revealed that introduction of AMB into ND decreases the ability of apoA-I to resist denaturation. Atomic force microscopy experiments showed that AMB induces compression of ND bilayer thickness while infrared spectroscopy analysis revealed that the presence of AMB does not induce extreme lipid disorder or alter the mean angle of the molecular axis along fatty acyl chains of ND phospholipids. Taken together the results are consistent with AMB-induced bilayer interdigitation, a phenomenon that likely contributes to AMB-dependent pore formation in susceptible membranes.     

Amphotericin B induces interdigitation of apolipoprotein stabilized nanodisk bilayers

Amphotericin B nanodisks (AMB-ND) are ternary complexes of AMB, phospholipid and apolipoprotein organized as discrete nanometer scale disk-shaped bilayers. In gel filtration chromatography experiments, empty ND lacking AMB elute as a single population of particles with a molecular weight in the range of 200 kDa. AMB-ND formulated at a 4:1 phospholipid:AMB weight ratio separated into two peaks. One peak eluted at the position of control ND lacking AMB while the second peak, containing all of the AMB present in the original sample, eluted in the void volume. When ND prepared with increased AMB were subjected to gel filtration chromatography an increased proportion of phospholipid and apolipoprotein was recovered in the void volume with AMB. Native gradient gel electrophoresis corroborated the gel filtration chromatography data and electron microscopy studies revealed an AMB concentration-dependent heterogeneity in ND particle size. Stability studies revealed that introduction of AMB into ND decreases the ability of apoA-I to resist denaturation. Atomic force microscopy experiments showed that AMB induces compression of ND bilayer thickness while infrared spectroscopy analysis revealed that the presence of AMB does not induce extreme lipid disorder or alter the mean angle of the molecular axis along fatty acyl chains of ND phospholipids. Taken together the results are consistent with AMB-induced bilayer interdigitation, a phenomenon that likely contributes to AMB-dependent pore formation in susceptible membranes.     

两性霉素B抗真菌作用机制与病原性土曲霉对其耐药机制的研究进展

两性霉素B(amphotericin B, AMB)是经典的多烯类抗真菌药物,对病原真菌具有广谱抗菌活性,且不易产生耐药性。土曲霉是临床上常见的病原性曲霉,因其对AMB天然耐药而受到关注。现阶段,AMB的抗真菌作用机制有待进一步阐明,且真菌对AMB的耐药机制研究亦不充分。本文就AMB在土曲霉中诱导内源性活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS)产生的抗真菌作用机制进行介绍,并重点讨论应激适应通路(热休克蛋白90、热休克蛋白70和钙调磷酸酶)、ROS清除酶以及线粒体功能在土曲霉对AMB耐药中的作用。这些新发现对了解AMB在其他病原性曲霉中的作用机制和耐药机制都具有重要的临床意义。     

Characterization of a Polyethylene Glycol-Amphotericin B Conjugate Loaded with Free AMB for Improved Antifungal Efficacy

Amphotericin B (AMB) is a highly hydrophobic antifungal, whose use is limited by its toxicity and poor solubility. To improve its solubility, AMB was reacted with a functionalized polyethylene glycol (PEG), yielding soluble complex AmB-PEG formulations that theoretically comprise of chemically conjugated AMB-PEG and free AMB that is physically associated with the conjugate. Reverse-phase chromatography and size exclusion chromatography methods using HPLC were developed to separate conjugated AMB-PEG and free AmB, enabling the further characterization of these formulations. Using HPLC and dynamic light scattering analyses, it was observed that the AMB-PEG 2 formulation, having a higher molar ratio of 2 AMB: 1 PEG, possesses more free AMB and has relatively larger particle diameters compared to the AMB-PEG 1 formulation, that consists of 1 AMB: 1 PEG. The identity of the conjugate was also verified using mass spectrometry. AMB-PEG 2 demonstrates improved antifungal efficacy relative to AMB-PEG 1, without a concurrent increase in in vitro toxicity to mammalian cells, implying that the additional loading of free AMB in the AMB-PEG formulation can potentially increase its therapeutic index. Compared to unconjugated AMB, AMB-PEG formulations are less toxic to mammalian cells in vitro, even though their MIC₅₀ values are comparatively higher in a variety of fungal strains tested. Our in vitro results suggest that AMB-PEG 2 formulations are two times less toxic than unconjugated AMB with antifungal efficacy on Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans.     

The application of the AMB protective group in the solid-phase synthesis of methylphosphonate DNA analogues.

Partially methylphosphonate-modified oligodeoxynucleotides were synthesized on solid-phase by employing the easily removable 2-(acetoxymethyl)benzoyl (AMB) group as base-protecting group. Although a rapid AMB deprotection can be accomplished in methanolic potassium carbonate, the lability of the methylphosphonate linkage towards potassium carbonate/methanol excludes the use of this deprotection reagent. Thus, saturated ammonia solution in methanol was investigated as an alternative reagent for AMB removal. It is demonstrated that the combination of the AMB protective group and ammonia/methanol as deprotection reagent significantly improves the synthesis of methylphosphonate-modified DNA fragments. A mild overnight treatment at room temperature is sufficient for complete removal of the AMB group, whereas deprotection of conventionally protected oligonucleotides requires much longer exposure to basic conditions at elevated temperatures.