Bacillus pumilus WL-11木聚糖酶A的纯化、鉴定及其底物降解方式

对一株Bacilluspumilus WL_11木聚糖酶的纯化、酶学性质及其底物降解模式进行了研究。经过硫酸铵盐析、CM_Sephadex及SephadexG_75层析分离纯化,获得一种纯化的WL_11木聚糖酶A ,其分子量为26.0kD ,pI值9.5 ,以燕麦木聚糖为底物时的表观Km 值为16.6mg mL ,Vmax值为12.63μmol (min·mg)。木聚糖酶A的pH稳定范围为6 0至10 4 ,最适作用pH范围则在7.2至8.0之间,是耐碱性木聚糖酶;最适作用温度为45℃～55℃,在37℃、45℃以下时该酶热稳定性均较好;50℃保温时,该酶活力的半衰期大约为2h ,在超过50℃的环境下,该酶的热稳定较差,55℃和60℃时的酶活半衰期分别为35min和15min。WL_11木聚糖酶A对来源于燕麦、桦木和榉木的可溶性木聚糖的酶解结果发现,木聚糖酶A对几种不同来源的木聚糖的降解过程并不一致。采用HPLC法分析上述底物的降解产物生成过程发现木聚糖酶A为内切型木聚糖酶,不同底物的降解产物中都无单糖的积累,且三糖的积累量都较高;与禾本科的燕麦木聚糖底物降解不同的是,木聚糖酶A对硬木木聚糖降解形成的五糖的继续降解能力较强。采用TLC法分析了WL-11粗木聚糖酶降解燕麦木聚糖的过程,结果表明燕麦木聚糖能够被WL-11粗木聚糖酶降解生成系列木寡糖,未检出木糖,这说明WL-11主要合成内切型木聚糖酶A,同时发酵液中不含木糖苷酶,适合用来酶法制备低聚木糖。     

厌氧菌群SVY42产酶条件分析及产木聚糖酶菌株的分离鉴定

以美国内华达州大盆地温泉采集样品为材料,富集获得纤维素及半纤维素高效稳定降解厌氧菌群SVY42,以巨菌草、甘蔗渣、废菇筒、羧甲基纤维素钠、滤纸、木聚糖为碳源,分析菌群SVY42产内切葡聚糖酶(CMC酶)、β-葡萄糖苷酶和木聚糖酶的情况。在此基础上,以木聚糖为底物筛选高产木聚糖酶的菌株。菌群SVY42在以巨菌草作为碳源时的β-葡萄糖苷酶活最高为0.23 U/mL,以木聚糖作为碳源时CMC酶活和木聚糖酶活均为最高,分别为0.31 U/mL和0.35 U/mL。从菌群SVY42中筛选得到1株高产木聚糖酶厌氧菌株SVY42-1,该菌在最适温度41℃和pH 8.0条件下,其木聚糖酶活力为0.26 U/mL,对其进行16S rDNA序列系统进化分析,SVY42-1与已知菌株的最高同源性仅为93.81%,初步鉴定属于新属。     

Bacillus pumilus WL-11木聚糖酶A的纯化、鉴定及其底物降解方式

对一株BacilluspumilusWL_11木聚糖酶的纯化、酶学性质及其底物降解模式进行了研究。经过硫酸铵盐析、CM_Sephadex及SephadexG_75层析分离纯化,获得一种纯化的WL_11木聚糖酶A ,其分子量为2 6 0kD ,pI值9 5 ,以燕麦木聚糖为底物时的表观Km 值为16 6mg mL ,Vmax值为12 6 3μmol (min·mg)。木聚糖酶A的pH稳定范围为6 0至10 4 ,最适作用pH范围则在7 2至8 0之间,是耐碱性木聚糖酶;最适作用温度为4 5℃～5 5℃,在37℃、4 5℃以下时该酶热稳定性均较好;5 0℃保温时,该酶活力的半衰期大约为2h ,在超过5 0℃的环境下,该酶的热稳定较差,5 5℃和6 0℃时的酶活半衰期分别为35min和15min。WL_11木聚糖酶A对来源于燕麦、桦木和榉木的可溶性木聚糖的酶解结果发现,木聚糖酶A对几种不同来源的木聚糖的降解过程并不一致。采用HPLC法分析上述底物的降解产物生成过程发现木聚糖酶A为内切型木聚糖酶,不同底物的降解产物中都无单糖的积累,且三糖的积累量都较高;与禾本科的燕麦木聚糖底物降解不同的是,木聚糖酶A对硬木木聚糖降解形成的五糖的继续降解能力较强。采用TLC法分析了WL_11粗木聚糖酶降解燕麦木聚糖的过程,结果表明燕麦木聚糖能够被WL_11粗木聚糖酶降解生成系列木寡糖,未检出木糖,这说明WL_11主要合成内切型木聚     

来源于耐碱真菌Pseudallescheria sp. JSM-2的碱性木聚糖酶基因的克隆、表达及其性质研究

从造纸废水中分离得到的耐碱真菌Pseudallescheria sp. JSM-2的DNA为模板,利用同源克隆和TAIL-PCR的方法,获得了一个碱性木聚糖酶基因xyl11-1。该基因DNA和cDNA分别为797 bp和678 bp。该基因的推测蛋白N-端有一个18个氨基酸的信号肽序列和一个含207个氨基酸的成熟蛋白。编码成熟蛋白的cDNA序列在毕赤酵母GS115中重组表达后,进一步纯化并进行酶学性质测定。重组XYL11-1的最适pH为6.5,在pH 4.5~9.0范围有50%以上的酶活;在pH 4.5~12.0范围具有良好的pH稳定性;最适温度为50℃;以燕麦木聚糖为底物,比活为2 618 U/mg;且对中性和碱性蛋白酶具有极好的抗性。该酶作用底物范围广,包括各种木聚糖、纤维素和葡聚糖,易于工业化发酵生产,具有在纸浆脱墨、动物饲料、鱼类饵料中的应用潜力。     

里氏木霉纤维素酶的分离纯化及酶学性质

通过(NH4)2SO4分级沉淀、HiPrep 26/10 Desalting凝胶色谱脱盐、Source 15 Q阴离子交换色谱技术,里氏木霉(Rut C-30)纤维素酶主要组分得以初步分开,再经过Source 15 S阳离子交换色谱、HiPrep Sephacryl S-100 HR凝胶过滤色谱、Superdex 75 PrepGrade凝胶过滤色谱进一步分离纯化,得到2个纯化的内切葡聚糖酶组分EGⅡ、EGⅠ和一个外切葡聚糖酶组分CBHⅠ;经过SDS-PAGE电泳鉴定为电泳纯,测得相对分子质量分别为5.22×104,5.62×104和6.90×104。EGⅡ的最适反应pH是5.6,最适反应温度为65℃;EGⅠ的最适反应pH是4.4,最适反应温度为55℃;以羧甲基纤维素(CMC)为底物时,EGⅠ、EGⅡ的米氏常数(Km)分别为2.20 mg/mL、3.38 mg/mL。CBHⅠ的最适反应pH是5.8,最适反应温度为60℃,以对硝基苯基-β-D-纤维二糖苷(PNPC)为底物时,米氏常数(Km)为0.12 mg/mL。     

来自Yeosuana marina sp.JLT21内切型海藻酸裂解酶的异源表达及酶学表征

褐藻寡糖有着丰富的生物学功能,酶法制备功能性褐藻寡糖具有重要实践应用价值。为发掘高活性及稳定性的褐藻寡糖制备酶,对浅海热液嗜热菌Yeosuana marina sp.JLT21中的海藻酸裂解酶YMA-1的基因在大肠杆菌中进行表达、纯化及酶活鉴定。结果发现YMA-1由306个氨基酸残基构成,是多糖裂解酶家族7(PL7)新成员;重组YMA-1酶的最适催化条件是55℃,pH 9.0,比活力1.3×10⁴ U/mg,Cu²⁺可有效促进酶活;在37℃,pH 9.0条件下,该酶对海藻酸钠、聚甘露糖醛酸和聚古罗糖醛酸的比活力分别达到(5201.21±86.46)U/mg、(6399.73±253.12)U/mg和(3751.68±116.25)U/mg,酶解海藻酸钠终产物多为不饱和三糖和四糖,表现出内切双功能型海藻酸裂解酶活性。YMA-1酶作为PL7家族中较宽底物谱、高活性及稳定性的内切海藻酸裂解酶,在高效绿色生产功能性褐藻寡糖上有着潜在应用价值。     

蜡样芽胞杆菌GXBC-3三个普鲁兰酶基因的表达及其酶学特性

探索获得优良的新型普鲁兰酶基因,丰富普鲁兰酶理论,对实现普鲁兰酶国产化具有重要意义。分析GenBank数据库中蜡样芽胞杆菌假定Ⅰ型、Ⅱ型普鲁兰酶基因序列,从实验室保藏的蜡样芽胞杆菌Bacilluscereus GXBC-3中克隆得到3个普鲁兰酶基因pulA、pulB、pulC,并分别导入大肠杆菌进行胞内诱导表达。纯化重组酶酶学性质研究表明重组酶PulA能水解α-l,6-和α-l,4-糖苷键,为Ⅱ型普鲁兰酶,以普鲁兰糖为底物时,最适反应温度及pH分别为40℃和6.5,比活力为32.89 U/mg;以可溶性淀粉为底物时,最适反应温度及pH分别为50℃和7.0,比活力为25.71 U/mg。重组酶PulB和PulC二者均只能水解α-l,6-糖苷键,为I型普鲁兰酶,以普鲁兰糖为底物时,其最适反应温度及pH分别为45℃、7.0和45℃、6.5,比活力分别为228.54 U/mg和229.65 U/mg。     

烟曲霉FC2-2木聚糖酶基因的大肠杆菌表达产物的表征

本研究对烟曲霉FC2-2的一个木聚糖酶基因Afxyn A在大肠杆菌中的表达产物进行了表征。重组木聚糖酶r Afxyn A最适p H为7.0,在p H 3.0~11.0的范围内都能保持60%以上的酶活力。r Afxyn A最适温度为50℃,在55℃以及60℃时酶活力丧失较快。EDTA对r Afxyn A酶活力具有促进作用,SDS、Ag+及Cu2+对r Afxyn A具有强烈的抑制作用。r Afxyn A对桦木木聚糖的酶动力学参数Km为(2.55±0.10)mg/m L,Vmax为(2 563±115.3)U/mg蛋白。r Afxyn A能够水解木聚糖,形成以木二糖为主的水解产物。r Afxyn A能够水解木三糖、木四糖、木五糖、木六糖等,水解的效率随聚合度的增加而增加。木聚糖酶基因Afxyn A的表达产物的特性分析对于研究该基因的工业化应用具有重要的意义。     

解木聚糖类芽孢杆菌木葡聚糖酶的分离纯化及酶学性质研究

解木聚糖类芽孢杆菌(Paenibacillus xylanilyticus)发酵液经硫酸铵分级沉淀、HiPrep26/10 Desalting柱脱盐、HiPrepDEAE FF16/10阴离子交换柱、HiPrep 16/60 Sephacryl S-100凝胶柱、HiPrep 16/10 Source 30S阳离子交换柱等,最终纯化出单一组分的木葡聚糖酶,经过SDS-PAGE电泳分析,此木葡聚糖酶相对分子量约为39 kD。该菌所产木葡聚糖酶的最适反应温度是50℃,在60℃以下较稳定;最适反应pH是7.0,在pH5.0-10.0范围内酶活力较为稳定。酶的动力学研究显示Km为65 g/L,Vmax为6.49μmol/min,kcat=10.86 s-1。底物特异性研究表明对木葡聚糖具有较高比活力。酶蛋白经质谱分析,比对结果显示与来源于Paenibacillus pabuli的木葡聚糖酶有较高同源性。本研究为首次报道解木聚糖类芽孢杆菌(P.xylanilyticus)产木葡聚糖酶。     

同步分泌高效纤维素酶和木聚糖酶菌株YB的鉴定及其酶学性质研究

筛选和鉴定可降解木质纤维素的真菌,并研究其产酶特征。采用刚果红平板涂布法,从荔枝腐叶中筛选具有木质纤维素降解能力的真菌,结合ITS-rDNA序列分析进行鉴定,初步测定其产酶条件,然后采用DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow阴离子交换层析与Sephadex G-100凝胶层析对硫酸铵沉淀的粗酶液进行分离纯化,对其开展酶学性质研究。结果显示,筛选出一株可降解木质纤维素降解的菌株YB,鉴定为绿木霉(Trichoderma virens)。在发酵过程中,纤维素酶和木聚糖酶的最大活力分别为313.53±26.78 U/mL和18 120.87±500.37 U/mL。分离纯化得到纤维素酶(CMC酶)Ⅰb、Ⅳ和木聚糖酶Ⅰa;通过SDS-PAGE检测,其分子量分别为58.5 kD、22.8 kD和44.5 kD。3种酶的最适酶促反应条件均为:50℃,pH 5.0。其中,木聚糖酶能有效降解玉米芯木聚糖为木糖和多种木寡糖。菌株Trichoderma virens YB可分泌高效木质纤维素降解酶,具有应用于木聚糖酶和木寡糖生产的潜力。     

High-level expression of a xylanase gene from the thermophilic fungus Paecilomyces thermophila in Pichia pastoris

A xylanase gene from Paecilomyces thermophila was functionally expressed in Pichia pastoris. The recombinant xylanase (xynA) was predominantly extracellular; in a 5?l fermentor culture, the total extracellular protein was 8.1?g?l^?1 with an activity of 52,940?U?ml^?1. The enzyme was purified to homogeneity with a recovery of 48?%. The recombinant xynA was optimally active at 75?°C, as measured over 10?min, and at pH 7. The enzyme was stable up to 80?°C for 30?min. It hydrolyzed birchwood xylan, beechwood xylan and xylooligosaccharides to produce xylobiose and xylotriose as the main products.     

A Thermostable Xylanase from a Thermophilic Acidophilic Bacillus sp.

Bacillus sp. 11-IS, a strain of thermophilic acidophilic bacteria, produced an extracellular xylanase during growth on xylan. The enzyme purified from the culture supernatant solution was homogeneous on disc-gel electrophoresis. The molecular weight was calculated to be 56,000 by SDS-gel electrophoresis. The enzyme had a pH optimum for activity at 4.0, and its stability range was pH 2.0 ~ 6.0. The temperature optimum was 80°C (10-min assay); however, the enzyme retained full activity after incubation at 70°C for 15 min. The enzyme acted on carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and cellulose, as well as on xylan. The Michaelis constants for larchwood xylan and CMC were calculated to be 1.68 mg xylose eq/ml and 0.465 mg glucose eq/ml, respectively. The predominant hydrolysis products from larchwood xylan were xylobiose, xylotriose, and xylose; the release of arabinose from rice-straw arabinoxylan was not detected. CMC was cleaved to cellobiose and larger oligosaccharides. Thus, the enzyme is considered to be an endoenzyme which degrades the β-1,4-glycosyl linkages in xylan and cellulose.     

Cloning, expression and characterization of a novel salt-tolerant xylanase from Bacillus sp. SN5

A xylanase gene (xyn10A) was cloned from Bacillus sp. SN5 and expressed in Escherichia coli. It encoded a 348-residue polypeptide of ~45?kDa. The deduced amino acid sequence had 68?% identity with the endo-1,4-beta-xylanase from Paenibacillus lactis 154 that belonged to family 10 of the glycoside hydrolases. Purified recombinant Xyn10A had maximum activity at 40?°C and pH 7.0, with the specific activity of 105?U/mg and a Km of 0.6?mg/ml for beechwood xylan. Xyn10A retained more than 80?% activity between 25 and 45?°C and 29?% activity at 5?°C. It exhibited the highest activity (134?%) in 0.5?M NaCl and still retained 90?% activity in 2.5?M NaCl. It retained about 87?% activity after incubation in 2?M NaCl for 24?h. The cold-active and halo-tolerant properties of Xyn10A make it promising for application in the food industry, especially in the processing of saline food and sea food.     

Molecular and biochemical characterization of a new alkaline active multidomain xylanase from alkaline wastewater sludge

A xylanase gene, xyn-b39, coding for a multidomain glycoside hydrolase (GH) family 10 protein was cloned from the genomic DNA of the alkaline wastewater sludge of a paper mill. Its deduced amino acid sequence of 1,481 residues included two carbohydrate-binding modules (CBM) of family CBM_4_9, one catalytic domain of GH 10, one family 9 CBM and three S-layer homology (SLH) domains. xyn-b39 was expressed heterologously in Escherichia coli, and the recombinant enzyme was purified and characterized. Xyn-b39 exhibited maximum activity at pH 7.0 and 60 °C, and remained highly active under alkaline conditions (more than 80 % activity at pH 9.0 and 40 % activity at pH 10.0). The enzyme was thermostable at 55 °C, retaining more than 90 % of the initial activity after 2 h pre-incubation. Xyn-b39 had wide substrate specificity and hydrolyzed soluble substrates (birchwood xylan, beechwood xylan, oat spelt xylan, wheat arabinoxylan) and insoluble substrates (oat spelt xylan and wheat arabinoxylan). Hydrolysis product analysis indicated that Xyn-b39 was an endo-type xylanase. The K _m and V _max values of Xyn-b39 for birchwood xylan were 1.01 mg/mL and 73.53 U/min/mg, respectively. At the charge of 10 U/g reed pulp for 1 h, Xyn-b39 significantly reduced the Kappa number (P < 0.05) with low consumption of chlorine dioxide alone.     

Expression of a family 10 xylanase gene from Aspergillus usamii E001 in Pichia pastoris and characterization of the recombinant enzyme

A cDNA gene (Auxyn10A), which encodes a mesophilic family 10 xylanase from Aspergillus usamii E001 (abbreviated to AuXyn10A), was amplified and inserted into the XhoI and NotI sites of pPIC9K^M vector constructed from a parent pPIC9K. The recombinant expression vector, designated pPIC9K^M-Auxyn10A, was transformed into Pichia pastoris GS115. All P. pastoris transformants were spread on a MD plate, and then inoculated on geneticin G418-containing YPD plates for screening multiple copies of integration of the Auxyn10A. One transformant expressing the highest recombinant AuXyn10A (reAuXyn10A) activity of 368.6 U/ml, numbered as P. pastoris GSX10A4-14, was selected by flask expression test. SDS-PAGE assay demonstrated that the reAuXyn10A was extracellularly expressed with an apparent M.W. of 39.8 kDa. The purified reAuXyn10A displayed the maximum activity at pH 5.5 and 50 °C. It was highly stable at a broad pH range of 4.5–8.5, and at a temperature of 45 °C. Its activity was not significantly affected by EDTA and several metal ions except Mn²⁺, which caused a strong inhibition. The K _m and V _max, towards birchwood xylan at pH 5.5 and 50 °C, were 2.25 mg/ml and 6,267 U/mg, respectively. TLC analysis verified that the AuXyn10A is an endo-β-1,4-d-xylanase, which yielded a major product of xylotriose and a small amount of xylose, xylotetraose, and xylopentose from birchwood xylan, but no xylobiose.     

Biocatalytic properties and substrate-binding ability of a modular GH10 β-1,4-xylanase from an insect-symbiotic bacterium,Streptomyces mexicanus HY-14

The gene (1350-bp) encoding a modular β-1,4-xylanase (XylU), which consists of an N-terminal catalytic GH10 domain and a C-terminal carbohydrate-binding module 2 (CBM 2), from Streptomyces mexicanus HY-14 was cloned and functionally characterized. The purified His-tagged recombinant enzyme (rXylU, 44.0 kDa) was capable of efficiently hydrolyze diverse xylosidic compounds, p-nitrophenyl-cellobioside, and p-nitrophenyl-xylopyranoside when incubated at pH 5.5 and 65°C. Especially, the specific activities (649.8 U/mg and 587.0 U/mg, respectively) of rXylU toward oat spelts xylan and beechwood xylan were relatively higher than those (<500.0 U/mg) of many other GH10 homologs toward the same substrates. The results of enzymatic degradation of birchwood xylan and xylooligosaccharides (xylotriose to xylohexaose) revealed that rXylU preferentially hydrolyzed the substrates to xylobiose (>75%) as the primary degradation product. Moreover, a small amount (4%<) of xylose was detected as the degradation product of the evaluated xylosidic substrates, indicating that rXylU was a peculiar GH10 β-1,4-xylanase with substrate specificity, which was different from its retaining homologs. A significant reduction of the binding ability of rXylU caused by deletion of the C-terminal CBM 2 to various insoluble substrates strongly suggested that the additional domain might considerably contribute to the enzyme-substrate interaction.     

Molecular cloning and heterologous expression of an alkaline xylanase from Bacillus pumilus HBP8 in Pichia pastoris

The xynHB gene, encoding alkaline xylanase was cloned from Bacillus pumilus by a shot-gun method. The gene was cloned into vector pHBM905A, and expressed in Pichia pastoris GS115. Xylanase-secreting transformants were selected on plates containing RBB-xylan. Enzymatic activity in the culture supernatants was up to 644?U?mL^?1 and the optimal secretion time was 4 days at 25°C. SDS-PAGE showed two bands, of 32.2?kDa and 29.6?kDa, both larger than the predicted mass of 22.4?kDa based on its amino acid sequence. Zymogram analysis demonstrated that the enzyme in both bands could hydrolyze xylan. Deglycosylation by endoglycosidase H revealed that both were derived from the same protein but contain different extents of glycosylation (30 and 25%). The optimal pH and temperature of the enzyme was pH6–9 and 50°C, respectively.     

Purification, biochemical characterization, and structure of recombinant endo-1,4-β-xylanase XylE

The gene xylE encoding endo-1,4-β-xylanase from the 10th family of glycosyl hydrolases produced by the mycelial fungus Penicillium canescens has been expressed under the control of the strong promoter of the bgaS gene encoding β-galactosidase from P. canescens. As a result, a strain-producer of endoxylanase XylE was developed. The recombinant enzyme was isolated and purified to homogeneity with specific activity of 50 U/mg. The physicochemical and biochemical properties of the endoxylanase were studied. The maximal enzymatic activity was observed at pH 6.0 and 70°C. Endoxylanase XylE was shown to be a highly thermostable enzyme with half-inactivation period τ_1/2 of 7 h at 60°C. The kinetic parameters were 0.52 mg/ml (K _m) and 75 μmol/min per mg (V _max) using birch xylan as the substrate. Crystals of endoxylonase XylE were obtained, and the 3D structure was solved at 1.47 ? resolution. The 3D structure of an endo-1,4-β-xylanase from the 10th family containing carbohydrate and unique cyclic structure located at the C-terminus of the polypeptide chain was obtained for the first time.     

Characterization of a thermostable xylanase from an alkaliphilic Bacillus sp.

A xylanase gene (xyn10) from alkaliphilic Bacillus sp. N16-5 was cloned and expressed in Pichia pastoris. The deduced amino acid sequence has 85% identity with xylanase xyn10A from B. halodurans and contains two potential N-glycosylation sites. The glycosylated Xyn10 with MW 48 kDa can hydrolyze birchwood and oatspelt xylan. The enzyme had optimum activity at pH 7 and 70°C, with the specific activity of 92.5U/mg. The Xyn10 retained over 90% residual activity at 60°C for 30 min but lost all activity at 80°C over 15 min. Most tested ions showed no or slight inhibition effects on enzyme activity.     

Concomitant selective adsorption and covalent immobilization of a His-tagged protein switch with silica-based metal chelate-epoxy bifunctional adsorbents

A series of silica-based bifunctional adsorbents containing both metal-chelating groups and epoxy groups for the concomitant purification and immobilization of His-tagged protein switch RG13, a potential bioreceptor for developing maltose biosensors, were prepared by controlling the ratio of iminodiacetic acid-conjugated silane (GLYMO-IDA) and silane (GLYMO) used for surface modification. The bifunctional adsorbent prepared with a [GLYMO-IDA]/[GLYMO] ratio of 0.2, containing a [metal chelating group]/[epoxy group] ratio of 1.42, was shown to exhibit a metal chelating capacity of 88.42 ± 15.91 μmole Cu²⁺/g, a protein adsorption capacity of 1.81 ± 0.19 mg/g and a superior selectivity over the other bifunctional adsorbents. Results of kinetic studies showed that selective adsorption and covalent bond formation at 4 °C were achieved in 1 h and 15 h, respectively, which allowed the sequential adsorption and covalent immobilization of protein switch RG13. A protein immobilization yield of 94.6 % and a global activity yield of 63.4 % were obtained, giving an immobilized protein switch RG13 with an enzymatic activity of 4.57 ± 0.19 U/g, under optimal conditions at pH 8.0 and 40 °C. In the repeated-batch operation, the bifunctional adsorbent-immobilized RG13 retained 91 % of the original activity after 20 cycles, 39 % higher than the counterpart prepared with monofunctional metal chelate adsorbent mediated solely by coordinate linkages.