Phenological growth stages of olive trees (Olea europaea)

This paper describes the phenological growth stages of olive trees using the BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt, Chemische Industrie) scale. Eight principal growth stages for bud, leaf and shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, fruit maturity and senescence and 32 secondary growth stages are described. Advantages of the BBCH scale over other methods are discussed.     

Phenological growth stages of Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) according to the BBCH scale

Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) has been recognised as an underutilised plant worthy of further research and development by the Indian National Genetic Resources Programme and the International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK. It is an important fruit crop of the hot arid regions in India as it forms an integral part of the life of the locals as a source of nutrition, fodder (leaves), fuel (pruned wood) and it has several ethnobotanical uses. In this study, 8 of the 10 principal growth stages based on the existing Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie (BBCH) scale were used to describe Indian jujube. These growth stages were vegetative bud development (Stage 0), leaf development (Stage 1), shoot development (Stage 3), inflorescence development (Stage 5), flower development (Stage 6), fruit development (Stage 7), fruit maturity (Stage 8) and senescence or beginning of dormancy (Stage 9). The phenological BBCH scale for Indian jujube can be used to guide the growers as to when to carry out orchard management practices such as canopy training and pruning, nutrient and water application, pest and disease control and post‐harvest processing.     

Phenological growth stages of Magnolia ×soulangeana according to the extended BBCH scale

Magnolia × soulangeana, one of the most famous ornamental trees of Magnoliaceae, is widely cultivated around the world. However, its phenological characteristics at life-cycle scale have never been detailedly reported so far. In this article, the extended BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt, und Chemische Industrie) scale was applied to divide the growth and development cycle of M. × soulangeana in both juvenile phase and adult phase, and describe the characteristics of phenological development stage, so as to provide theoretical guidance for its cultivation measures implementation. Based on the BBCH phenological scale, the processes of germination (0), leaf development (1), main stem elongation (3) and dormancy (9) were observed in the juvenile phase. Likewise, the morphological changes of organs in adult phase were abundant, and eight principal growth stages were described: vegetative bud development (0), leaf development (1), shoot development (3), reproductive development (5), flowering (6), fruit development (7), maturity of fruit (8) and dormancy (9). Our newly developed scale provides a unified standard for describing and identifying the phenological period of M. × soulangeana. In addition, it is of great significance to understand the phenological characteristics of M. × soulangeana for its breeding and cultivation management.     

Phenological growth stages of jujube tree (Ziziphus jujube): codification and description according to the BBCH scale

The phenological growth stages of jujube tree are first described here using the BBCH scale. Based on this general scale, jujube phenology showed 8 of the 10 principal stages (0–9): bud, leaf and shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, fruit maturity and senescence. A schematic representation of the chronological progression of principal growth stages of jujube is also shown. The codification of the different growth stages is important for correct timing of general orchard management, particularly for disease and pest management. Besides, it will help farmers to efficiently schedule and manage jujube cultivation, as well as to improve knowledge dissemination among scientists around the World.     

Phenological growth stages of loquat tree (Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.)

Conservation, characterisation and utilisation of minor fruit tree species is an important objective for diversification of agro-food production. One such fruit tree is the loquat, a tree that originated in China but is well adapted to the Mediterranean area. The conservation and utilisation of suitable germplasm requires an accurate characterisation and evaluation of the material. A first step in characterisation is to use phenotypic traits. This paper describes the phenological growth stages of loquat tree using the extended BBCH scale. Seven principal growth stages (PGS) for bud, leaf and shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development and fruit maturity and 31 secondary growth stages are described and compared with a previous scale based on Fleckinger classical methodology. An example of application of the extended BBCH scale for characterisation of loquat cultivars from IVIA germplasm collection is reported.     

Phenological growth stages of nashi tree (Pyrus pyrifolia): codification and description according to the BBCH scale

The phenological growth stages of nashi tree were firstly described here using the BBCH scale. Based on this general scale, nashi phenology showed 8 of the 10 principal stages (0–9): bud, leaf and shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, fruit maturity and senescence. A schematic representation of the chronological progression of principal growth stages of nashi is also shown. The codification of the different growth stages is important for correct timing of general orchard management, particularly for disease and pest management. Besides, it will help farmers to efficiently schedule and manage nashi cultivation, as well as to improve knowledge dissemination among scientists around the World.     

Phenological growth stages of shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa subsp. paradoxa) according to the BBCH scale

The shea tree is among the socio-economically and environmentally most important plants in the Sudano-Sahelian region of Africa. Shea butter is internationally valued for use in pharmaceutical, cosmetic and confectionary industries. Scaling and describing phenological growth stages is of great importance in crops management. However, such phenological scale is still lacking for shea tree. To fill this gap, we documented the different growth stages of shea tree by referencing to the Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie (BBCH) scale. Eight of the ten principal growth stages (0–9) and 43 secondary growth stages (0–9) were described in shea tree. Among the eight principal stages, four were related to reproductive phenophases: inflorescence emergence stage (5), flowering stage (6), fruit development stage (7), and fruit maturity stage (8). The remaining four principal stages concerned vegetative phenophases and contained: bud development stage (0), leaf development stage (1), shoot development stage (3), and senescence stage (9). Observations of shea tree phenophases depicted asynchronous growth patterns with overlapping secondary growth stages of different principal stages within an individual tree canopy at the same time. The proposed phenological growth scale specific to shea tree but compatible with other crops is a valuable contribution for the implementation of crops management protocols and the standardisation of research between different laboratories.     

The carbon balance of flowers of Diplacus aurantiacus (Scrophulariaceae)

Summary Measurements and modeling of photosynthesis, respiration and growth in flowers of Diplacus aurantiacus, a semidrought-deciduous shrub, indicate that they can provide 18%–25% of their total carbon requirements through photosynthesis of flower parts. Daily photosynthetic carbon fixation exceeds daily respiratory CO₂ loss during most non-fruiting stages of development. However, this carbon gain fails to meet the requirements for new biomass construction during bud growth and corolla expansion. During fruiting stages, insufficient carbon is fixed to fully supply either respiration or growth.The calyx performs most of the flower's photosynthesis throughout the life of the flower. However, during stages of fruit development, the contribution of the ovary to flower photosynthesis may equal that of the calyx.     

Phenological growth stages of mulberry tree (Morus sp.) codification and description according to the BBCH scale

Recently, mulberry fruits have increased rapidly the production and consumption, due to its high levels of bioactive compounds, excellent taste and nutritional value. Nevertheless there is poorly information about its phenology. In the present study, the different phenological growth stages of mulberry are characterised according to the BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt Chemische Industrie) scale. Eight of the 10 principal developmental stages from BBCH scale were described for Morus sp., starting at bud development (stage 0) and ending at the senescence and beginning of the rest period (stage 9). The BBCH code for this species provides a consensual unified approach for standardisation of phenological stages in mulberry, moreover to facilitate agronomic practices.     

Pecan phenology in Southeastern China

Pecan (Carya illinoensis) is heterodicogamous, which often leads to unstable yield of its nut crops. Relating pecan orchard management to the phenological stage of the trees is the key to increasing yields; however, describing morphology alone does not lead to an orchard management system that is simple and practical. In this work, we extend the BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie) coding method to describe the morphology of the protogynous Mahan pecan cultivar over two consecutive years in southern China. Eight main growth stages, from vegetative bud dormancy to fruit harvest, were described and each phenological period was photographed. Pecan orchard management activities were listed for each stage in pecan BBCH scale to allow orchard managers to better manage their trees. This codification will facilitate breeding, conservation of genetic resources and general orchard management of this commercial crop. As well, recording the dates of various morphological stages over time will allow the influence of global climate change on pecan development to be tracked.     

Phenological growth stages of jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) according to the extended BBCH scale

Jackfruit, the largest known edible fruit bearing tree, is one of the important fruit crops of India. It exhibits wide range of diversity with respect to fruit character and bulb quality. It is an important component of homestead garden because of its multifarious uses (dessert, vegetable and pickle) and high nutritive value. In spite of high food value and market potential, jackfruit is one of the poorly researched crops and there is a dearth of information about its phenology. The present study defines phenological stages of jackfruit according to the extended BBCH (Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie) scale using three‐digit numerical system. Eight principal growth stages, namely bud development (stage 0), shoot development (stage 1), leaf development (stage 3), specialised reproductive shoot development (stage 4), reproductive development (stage 5), flowering (stage 6), fruit development (stage 7) and fruit maturation (stage 8) have been described. A total of 42 secondary growth stages have been described and defined. In this study, bearing and non‐bearing footstalks as well as male and female phases have been defined separately. The study will act as an effective tool for providing a consensual unified approach for standardisation of phenophases, as well as for efficient orchard management for ensuring higher yield and fruit quality. The scale may also be effectively used for characterisation and adaptation of germplasm and assessment of climatic impact on crop phenology.