微孢子虫归类于真菌的评论

微孢子虫是一类专营寄生生活、无线粒体的单细胞真核生物,在分类学上一直归类于原生生物界,原生动物亚界。但最近对微孢子虫分子进化和系统发育的研究认为微孢子虫与真菌具有很近的亲缘关系,美国生物技术信息中心(NCBI)2002年将微孢子虫归类于真菌。本文予以综述和评论。     

微孢子虫生物多样性研究的述评

微孢子虫作为一类专营细胞内寄生的低等的原生动物,有着比较悠久的进化历史。微孢子虫是一种既具有真核生物特征又具有原核生物特征的生物,同样具有生物多样性的本质,文章尝试用生物多样性的概念和原理,阐述原始的真核寄生物微孢子虫的物种多样性、遗传多样性和生态系统多样性的研究概况。     

线粒体型蛋白frataxin在家蚕微孢子虫中的鉴定与分析

[目的]Frataxin是铁硫簇相关蛋白,在线粒体代谢中起着重要作用.分析家蚕微孢子中该蛋白的结构特征,系统进化关系以及在孢子体内的转录翻译活性.[方法]基于家蚕微孢子全基因组序列,同源序列搜索获得该基因序列.进行蛋白二级结构比较,近缘物种共线性特征分析及系统进化树构建.此外构建pGEX-4T-1-Nbfra原核重组表达载体,转化E coli BL21(DE3)进行目的蛋白表达纯化,以此为抗原免疫小鼠,制备抗体,并与家蚕微孢子总蛋白进行Western免疫杂交.[结果]Nbfra蛋白缺乏进入线粒体的信号序列,功能区缺乏部分α-螺旋;frataxin基因在不同微孢子基因组中的分布具有共线性特征,表明其在基因组进化中非常保守.系统进化分析显示微孢子形成独立进化支,并且与高等真核生物近缘,说明微孢子在进化地位上比其它原虫更加高等,支持了微孢子虫是真菌的姊妹枝的进化地位假说.[结论]免疫杂交结果表明Nbfra基因家蚕微孢子虫中能正常表达与翻译.本研究为微孢子的分类地位及线体假说提供了重要的补充依据.     

微孢子虫核糖体小亚单位RNA（ssurRNA）基因

微孢子虫是广泛分布于自然界的细胞内原虫类寄生虫,它们可寄生于整个生物界。微孢子虫是真核生物,但其核糖体及核糖体RNA（rRNA）为原核生物型。为探讨9种家蚕病原性微孢子虫的种地位及亲缘关系,对已广泛用于生物进化分类的核糖体小亚单位RNA（ssurRNA)基因进行了研究。由微孢子虫ssurRNA基因序列同源笥分析所构建的系统进货发育树及Southern杂交分析表明,这9种微孢子虫同为Nosema属,为同属不同种。     

蜜蜂及熊蜂微孢子虫rRNA基因研究

核糖体RNA(rRNA)是一种理想的进化计时器,已广泛地应用于研究微生物的系统发育和进化关系。蜜蜂和熊蜂都被微孢子虫感染,关于蜜蜂和熊蜂微孢子虫rRNA基因研究主要有rRNA基因序列的测定分析、二级结构的研究和用rRNA基因检测诊断微孢子虫等。这些对蜜蜂和熊蜂微孢子虫系统发育的研究和微孢子虫的防治等具有重要的推动作用。     

几类"无线粒体"原生动物进化地位的探讨--来自DNA拓扑异构酶Ⅱ的系统分析证据

以贾第虫、毛滴虫、内变形虫和微孢子虫等为代表的几类寄生原生动物曾因为"无线粒体", 再加上其他一些似乎介于原核和真核细胞之间的原始特点和分子系统树中它们往往处在真核生物的最基部等证据, 而被有些人认为是目前已知的一类最原始的真核生物类群--Archezoa, 其进化地位应该是处在真核细胞通过"内共生"产生线粒体之前的极早阶段. 这一观点一度被部分学者认为对探讨真核细胞(生物)的起源、进化极为重要, 是进化生物学上的重要突破. 然而, 近年来不断有研究对此提出质疑. 我们首先扩增、测序并鉴定了蓝氏贾第虫、阴道毛滴虫和痢疾内变形虫的DNA拓扑异构酶Ⅱ序列, 再结合GenBank数据库中已有的脑炎微孢子虫和其他一系列处在不同进化地位的真核生物的相应序列数据, 用多种方法构建出分子系统树, 对这些"无线粒体"原生动物的进化地位进行了探讨. 结果表明, 由于DNA拓扑异构酶Ⅱ的特点和可以克服"长枝吸引"等以往分子系统分析中的不足, 所构建的系统树不仅能有效地反映出已普遍接受的真核生物各主要类群的系统关系, 而且显示出这些"无线粒体"原生动物不同于以前系统树所推测的进化地位: 它们并非是最早分支出来的真核生物, 而是在具有线粒体的生物如动基体类或菌虫类等之后才分化的、分别属于不同进化地位的类群. 结合近来在它们中发现了类似线粒体细胞器的证据, 我们认为这些"无线粒体"的原生动物虽然其中有些种类(如以贾第虫为代表的双滴虫类)进化地位很低等, 但总体上并非过去所认为的那么极端原始, 它们应该是线粒体产生之后因适应长期的无氧条件下的内寄生生活方式才分别分化出来的多源发生的不同生物类群.     

几类“无线粒体”原生动物进化地位的探讨

以贾第虫、毛滴虫、内变形虫和微孢子虫等为代表的几类寄生原生动物曾因为“无线粒体”, 再加上其他一些似乎介于原核和真核细胞之间的原始特点和分子系统树中它们往往处在真核生物的最基部等证据, 而被有些人认为是目前已知的一类最原始的真核生物类群——Archezoa, 其进化地位应该是处在真核细胞通过“内共生”产生线粒体之前的极早阶段. 这一观点一度被部分学者认为对探讨真核细胞(生物)的起源、进化极为重要, 是进化生物学上的重要突破. 然而, 近年来不断有研究对此提出质疑. 我们首先扩增、测序并鉴定了蓝氏贾第虫、阴道毛滴虫和痢疾内变形虫的DNA拓扑异构酶Ⅱ序列, 再结合GenBank数据库中已有的脑炎微孢子虫和其他一系列处在不同进化地位的真核生物的相应序列数据, 用多种方法构建出分子系统树, 对这些“无线粒体”原生动物的进化地位进行了探讨. 结果表明, 由于DNA拓扑异构酶Ⅱ的特点和可以克服“长枝吸引”等以往分子系统分析中的不足, 所构建的系统树不仅能有效地反映出已普遍接受的真核生物各主要类群的系统关系, 而且显示出这些“无线粒体”原生动物不同于以前系统树所推测的进化地位: 它们并非是最早分支出来的真核生物, 而是在具有线粒体的生物如动基体类或菌虫类等之后才分化的、分别属于不同进化地位的类群. 结合近来在它们中发现了类似线粒体细胞器的证据, 我们认为这些“无线粒体”的原生动物虽然其中有些种类(如以贾第虫为代表的双滴虫类)进化地位很低等, 但总体上并非过去所认为的那么极端原始, 它们应该是线粒体产生之后因适应长期的无氧条件下的内寄生生活方式才分别分化出来的多源发生的不同生物类群.     

单细胞真核生物的miRNA系统及其进化意义

miRNA 系统在高等多细胞真核生物中得到了广泛深入的研究。近年来,人们在单细胞真核生物上的miRNA研究也取得了重要进展。这不仅丰富了人们对miRNA在整个生物界中的认识,更重要的是对于揭示miRNA这一表达调节系统是如何在生物界中起源进化的问题具有重要意义。该文结合作者在最低等单细胞真核生物——贾第虫上的研究结果,对该领域的研究进展作一概述,并对有关miRNA这一系统的起源进化问题进行了探讨。     

为什么说人属于“单鞭毛生物”

传统的生物分类方法,是将地球上的生物分为原核生物和真核生物两大类,其中原核生物可以分为细菌和古菌;真核生物可以分为动物、植物和真菌。近年来对各种生物基因组的分析和比较表明,真核生物还可以分为单鞭毛生物和双鞭毛生物两大类,其中单鞭毛生物包括动物和真菌,双鞭毛生物包括植物和藻类。这种分类方法得到了一些分子特征性进化方式的有力支持,并且证明多细胞动物是从单细胞的领鞭毛虫进化而来的。     

微管(上)

一、序真核细胞的进化伴随着细胞的结构体制较大的变化。和它们的原核祖先相比较,真核细胞具有更复杂的细胞膜排列,各式各样的不对称的细胞形状,许多新的分泌、运动以及细胞内运送的系统,和遗传物质分离的新方法。这些进展中有许多可能紧紧地依赖着微管的进化,微管实际上是在所有真核生物的生活周期或发育史的某个时候在其细胞里找到的一种用途异常多的蛋白质聚合体。微管是真核生物所独有的并普     

Evidence from small-subunit ribosomal RNA sequences for a fungal origin of Microsporidia

The phylum Microsporidia comprises a species-rich group of minute, single-celled, and intra-cellular parasites. Lacking normal mitochondria and with unique cytology, microsporidians have sometimes been thought to be a lineage of ancient eukaryotes. Although phylogenetic analyses using small-subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU-rRNA) genes almost invariably place the Microsporidia among the earliest branches on the eukaryotic tree, many other molecules suggest instead a relationship with fungi. Using maximum likelihood methods and a diverse SSU-rRNA data set, we have re-evaluated the phylogenetic affiliations of Microsporidia. We demonstrate that tree topologies used to estimate likelihood model parameters can materially affect phylogenetic searches. We present a procedure for reducing this bias: "tree-based site partitioning," in which a comprehensive set of alternative topologies is used to estimate sequence data partitions based on inferred evolutionary rates. This hypothesis-driven approach appears to be capable of utilizing phylogenetic information that is not available to standard likelihood implementations (e.g., approximation to a gamma distribution); we have employed it in maximum likelihood and Bayesian analysis. Applying our method to a phylogenetically diverse SSU-rRNA data set revealed that the early diverging ("deep") placement of Microsporidia typically found in SSU-rRNA trees is no better than a fungal placement, and that the likeliest placement of Microsporidia among non-long-branch eukaryotic taxa is actually within fungi. These results illustrate the importance of hypothesis testing in parameter estimation, provide a way to address certain problems in difficult data sets, and support a fungal origin for the Microsporidia.     

Microsporidia: a journey through radical taxonomical revisions

Microsporidia are obligate intracellular parasites of medical and commercial importance, characterized by a severe reduction, or even absence, of cellular components typical of eukaryotes such as mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and flagella. This simplistic cellular organization has made it difficult to infer the evolutionary relationship of Microsporidia to other eukaryotes, because they lack many characters historically used to make such comparisons. Eventually, it was suggested that this simplicity might be due to Microsporidia representing a very early eukaryotic lineage that evolved prior to the origin of many typically eukaryotic features, in particular the mitochondrion. This hypothesis was supported by the first biochemical and molecular studies of the group. In the last decade, however, contrasting evidence has emerged, mostly from molecular sequences, that show Microsporidia are related to fungi, and it is now widely acknowledged that features previously recognized as primitive are instead highly derived adaptations to their obligate parasitic lifestyle. The various sharply differing views on microsporidian evolution resulted in several radical reappraisals of their taxonomy. Here we will chronologically review the causes and consequences for these taxonomic revisions, with a special emphasis on why the unique cellular and genomic features of Microsporidia lured scientists towards the wrong direction for so long.     

A mitochondrial Hsp70 orthologue in Vairimorpha necatrix: molecular evidence that microsporidia once contained mitochondria

Microsporidia are small (1–20 μm) obligate intracellular parasites of a variety of eukaryotes, and they are serious opportunistic pathogens of immunocompromised patients [1]. Microsporidia are often assigned to the first branch in gene trees of eukaryotes [2] and [3], and are reported to lack mitochondria [2] and [4]. Like diplomonads and trichomonads, microsporidia are hypothesised to have diverged from the main eukaryotic stock prior to the event that led to the mitochondrion endosymbiosis [2] and [4]. They have thus assumed importance as putative relics of premitochondrion eukaryote evolution. Recent data have now revealed that diplomonads and trichomonads contain genes that probably originated from the mitochondrion endosymbiont [5], [6], [7], [8] and [9], leaving microsporidia as chief candidates for an extant primitively amitochondriate eukaryote group. We have now identified a gene in the microsporidium Vairimorpha necatrix that appears to be orthologous to the eukaryotic (symbiont-derived) Hsp70 gene, the protein product of which normally functions in mitochondria. The simplest interpretation of our data is that microporidia have lost mitochondria while retaining genetic evidence of their past presence. This strongly suggests that microsporidia are not primitively amitochondriate and makes feasible an evolutionary scenario whereby all extant eukaryotes share a common ancestor which contained mitochondria.     

Les microsporidies: un regain d'intérêt pour ces curieux parasites

Microsporidia were found to be involved in some diseases of insects (silkworm, bee, pests) and aquaculture pathology. They are important as opportunistic parasites in AIDS patients and are also prevalent in the European population (8 %). The cytological and molecular characterisation of numerous species infecting humans was determined. To obtain an easier diagnosis and more efficient therapy, researches were developed on the genome as well as on the invasive apparatus, which is unique in the living world. Recent, more important insights are the characterisation of polar tube proteins, the evidence for genome plasticity, and the size of haploid genome representing, for some species, the smallest nuclear genomes known so far. The placement of microsporidia in eukaryotic phylogenetic tree is still uncertain. They can be viewed as amitochondrial parasites which lost secondarily their mitochondria, and rDNA 23S or some protein sequences suggest a late origin within the terminal crown. The reduced size of the translation machinery could be a consequence of parasitism.     

Fungal evolution: the case of the vanishing mitochondrion

Mitochondria, the energy-producing organelles of the eukaryotic cell, are derived from an ancient endosymbiotic alpha-Proteobacterium. These organelles contain their own genetic system, a remnant of the endosymbiont's genome, which encodes only a fraction of the mitochondrial proteome. The majority of mitochondrial proteins are translated from nuclear genes and are imported into mitochondria. Recent studies of phylogenetically diverse representatives of Fungi reveal that their mitochondrial DNAs are among the most highly derived, encoding only a limited set of genes. Much of the reduction in the coding content of the mitochondrial genome probably occurred early in fungal evolution. Nevertheless, genome reduction is an ongoing process. Fungi in the chytridiomycete order Neocallimastigales and in the pathogenic Microsporidia have taken mitochondrial reduction to the extreme and have permanently lost a mitochondrial genome. These organisms have organelles derived from mitochondria that retain traces of their mitochondrial ancestry.     

Cell biology and invasion of the microsporidia

Microsporidia are amitochondrial eukaryotic obligate intracellular parasites. They are reported to infect every animal group from protists to vertebrates, including humans. Microsporidia are of interest as opportunistic pathogens in humans and for certain characteristics which raise questions about their evolution and phylogenetic position. This review describes the basic biology and invasion mechanisms of microsporidian species infecting humans.     

Energy metabolism among eukaryotic anaerobes in light of Proterozoic ocean chemistry

Recent years have witnessed major upheavals in views about early eukaryotic evolution. One very significant finding was that mitochondria, including hydrogenosomes and the newly discovered mitosomes, are just as ubiquitous and defining among eukaryotes as the nucleus itself. A second important advance concerns the readjustment, still in progress, about phylogenetic relationships among eukaryotic groups and the roughly six new eukaryotic supergroups that are currently at the focus of much attention. From the standpoint of energy metabolism (the biochemical means through which eukaryotes gain their ATP, thereby enabling any and all evolution of other traits), understanding of mitochondria among eukaryotic anaerobes has improved. The mainstream formulations of endosymbiotic theory did not predict the ubiquity of mitochondria among anaerobic eukaryotes, while an alternative hypothesis that specifically addressed the evolutionary origin of energy metabolism among eukaryotic anaerobes did. Those developments in biology have been paralleled by a similar upheaval in the Earth sciences regarding views about the prevalence of oxygen in the oceans during the Proterozoic (the time from ca 2.5 to 0.6 Ga ago). The new model of Proterozoic ocean chemistry indicates that the oceans were anoxic and sulphidic during most of the Proterozoic. Its proponents suggest the underlying geochemical mechanism to entail the weathering of continental sulphides by atmospheric oxygen to sulphate, which was carried into the oceans as sulphate, fueling marine sulphate reducers (anaerobic, hydrogen sulphide-producing prokaryotes) on a global scale. Taken together, these two mutually compatible developments in biology and geology underscore the evolutionary significance of oxygen-independent ATP-generating pathways in mitochondria, including those of various metazoan groups, as a watermark of the environments within which eukaryotes arose and diversified into their major lineages.     

Microsporidian Encephalitozoon cuniculi, a unicellular eukaryote with an unusual chromosomal dispersion of ribosomal genes and a LSU rRNA reduced to the universal core.

Microsporidia are eukaryotic parasites lacking mitochondria, the ribosomes of which present prokaryote-like features. In order to better understand the structural evolution of rRNA molecules in microsporidia, the 5S and rDNA genes were investigated in Encephalitozoon cuniculi . The genes are not in close proximity. Non-tandemly arranged rDNA units are on every one of the 11 chromosomes. Such a dispersion is also shown in two other Encephalitozoon species. Sequencing of the 5S rRNA coding region reveals a 120 nt long RNA which folds according to the eukaryotic consensus structural shape. In contrast, the LSU rRNA molecule is greatly reduced in length (2487 nt). This dramatic shortening is essentially due to truncation of divergent domains, most of them being removed. Most variable stems of the conserved core are also deleted, reducing the LSU rRNA to only those structural features preserved in all living cells. This suggests that the E.cuniculi LSU rRNA performs only the basic mechanisms of translation. LSU rRNA phylogenetic analysis with the BASEML program favours a relatively recent origin of the fast evolving microsporidian lineage. Therefore, the prokaryote-like ribosomal features, such as the absence of ITS2, may be derived rather than primitive characters.     

Origin of eukaryotic programmed cell death: A consequence of aerobic metabolism?

A marked feature of eukaryotic programmed cell death is an early drop in mitochondrial transmembrane potential. This results from the opening of permeability transition pores, which are composed of adenine nucleotide translocators and mitochondrial porins. The latter share striking similarites with bacterial porins, (including down-regulation of their pore size by purine nucleotides), suggesting a common origin. The porins of some invasive bacteria play a crucial role during their accommodation inside the host cell and this co-existence resembles the endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria. The above observations suggest that early in eukaryotic evolution, former invaders may have used porin-type channels to enter their host and to induce its death when the levels of its cytoplasmic purine nucleotides were dropped. The appearance of adenosine nucleotide translocators in the primitive eukaryotes, which permitted usage of the oxidative metabolism of the invaders, provided the basis for the permeability transition phenomena, now linked to the apoptotic process. Bcl-2-type molecules, being able to modulate the permeability transition pores by interaction with adenosine nucleotide translocators, may have played an essential role in conferring a means of controlling apoptosis.     

The origin of eukaryotes: a reappraisal

Ever since the elucidation of the main structural and functional features of eukaryotic cells and subsequent discovery of the endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria and plastids, two opposing hypotheses have been proposed to account for the origin of eukaryotic cells. One hypothesis postulates that the main features of these cells, including their ability to capture food by endocytosis and to digest it intracellularly, were developed first, and later had a key role in the adoption of endosymbionts; the other proposes that the transformation was triggered by an interaction between two typical prokaryotic cells, one of which became the host and the other the endosymbiont. Re-examination of this question in the light of cell-biological and phylogenetic data leads to the conclusion that the first model is more likely to be the correct one.