饮食胆固醇吸收的研究进展

膜蛋白尼曼-匹克C1型类似蛋白1(Niemann-Pick C1 Like 1,NPC1L1)是介导肝脏和小肠细胞从胆汁或食物中吸收胆固醇的关键蛋白质。本文综述了NPC1L1蛋白的结构、功能及其介导肝肠细胞吸收外源胆固醇的分子机制。NPC1L1蛋白与脂筏蛋白Flotillin-1或Flotillin-2结合,在细胞质膜上形成富含胆固醇的膜微结构域,通过clathrin/AP2介导的囊泡内吞机制,将该NPC1L1-Flotillin-Cholesterol膜微结构域内吞运输至细胞内的内吞循环体上;内吞循环体上的胆固醇浓度下降后,NPC1L1-Flotillin复合物则由Cdc42和Myosin Vb.Rab11a.Rab11-FIP2蛋白运输至质膜,以执行下一轮的胆固醇吸收功能。NPC1L1蛋白的N端结构域可特异性结合胆固醇,是NPC1L1-Flotillin-Cholesterol膜微结构域形成所必需的,同时决定了胆固醇吸收的特异性。人群中NPC1L1基因的多态性与胆固醇吸收异常相关。本文还对未来的研究方向进行了探讨。     

ABCA1与NPC1在细胞内胆固醇转运中的作用

腺苷三磷酸结合盒转运蛋白A1（ATP-binding cassette transporter A1,ABCA1）是血浆高密度脂蛋白（high-density lipoprotein,HDL）颗粒形成之初的限速步骤。ABCA1通过膜泡运输脂质至细胞表面的HDL载脂蛋白的作用机制尚未完全阐明。C型尼曼-匹克病（Niemann-Pick disease type C,NPC）主要由NPC1基因突变引起,NPC1蛋白能促进胆固醇和其他脂质从晚期胞内体/溶酶体流入其他细胞结构。ABCA1和NPC1相互作用保持细胞内脂质平衡,与Tangier病和N C P病等病理过程密切相关。     

小肠胆固醇吸收的研究进展

胆固醇是生命活动必不可少的脂类物质,但当体内胆固醇水平过高时,就会引起高胆固醇血症,进而导致动脉粥样硬化、脑中风和冠心病。人体内胆固醇有两种来源:以乙酰辅酶A为原料从头合成,或者通过小肠从食物中吸收。现今,过量的胆固醇摄取是引起高胆固醇血症的重要原因。胆固醇在小肠中的吸收是一个复杂的、由多个步骤组成的连续的分解、转运以及重新酯化的过程。其中由Niemann-Pick C1 Like 1(NPC1L1)蛋白介导肠道中胆固醇进入吸收细胞,是胆固醇吸收的限速步骤。本文重点总结了小肠胆固醇吸收的分子途径、调控机制、医药研发现状及与low-density lipoprotein receptor(LDLR)内吞过程的比较。     

调控胆固醇吸收的分子通路

机体内的胆固醇失衡会引发多种疾病,如高胆固醇血症、心脑血管疾病等,而其平衡由胆固醇的合成、吸收、代谢和循环共同维持,其中胆固醇的吸收至关重要。胆固醇的吸收主要发生在小肠和近段空肠,受众多蛋白的调控。尼曼-匹克C1样蛋白1(NPC1L1)负责胆固醇的摄取;ATP结合盒转运蛋白(ABCG5/ABCG8)则抑制胆固醇的吸收,酰基辅酶A-胆固醇酰基转移酶(ACAT)催化胆固醇脂化提高胆固醇吸收;ATP结合盒转运蛋白A1(ABCA1)负责外周组织胆固醇的转运,而这些蛋白又受到其他调控因子的影响。解析胆固醇吸收的分子通路对胆固醇失衡相关疾病的预防及治疗具有重大指导意义。因此,本文就调控胆固醇吸收的分子通路进行综述。     

胆固醇的内源合成与小肠吸收

以乙酰辅酶A为原料的从头合成和小肠从食物中吸收是人体获得胆固醇的主要来源。胆固醇的内源合成在转录水平上受SREBP通路调控,在转录后水平上主要受胆固醇合成途径限速酶HMGCR和SM的降解调控。小肠对胆固醇吸收是一个涉及胆汁乳化、转运及酯化等多个步骤的复杂过程。定位于小肠上皮刷状缘膜上的Niemann-Pick C1 Like 1(NPC1L1)是介导胆固醇吸收的关键蛋白,负责跨膜运输胆固醇进入小肠吸收细胞。现主要总结胆固醇合成途径的调控机制、NPC1L1蛋白介导胆固醇吸收的分子途径,以及讨论小肠胆固醇吸收与人体血液胆固醇水平之间的相关性。     

DNA甲基化抑制鼻咽癌细胞系膜联蛋白A1基因表达

为了研究不同分化程度和转移潜能鼻咽癌(NPC)细胞系膜联蛋白A1(ANXA1)mRNA和蛋白质表达情况及其与基因甲基化的关系．培养NPC细胞系CNE1、CNE2、5-8F、6-10B和永生化非癌性人鼻咽黏膜上皮细胞NP69细胞用于实验,用甲基化特异性聚合酶链反应(MSP)方法检测ANXA1基因甲基化状态,同时利用逆转录-聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)方法检测ANXA1基因的mRNA表达水平．然后用不同浓度的5-杂氮-2′-脱氧胞苷(5-aza-2dC)对NPC细胞进行去甲基化处理,MSP和RT-PCR方法检测处理组和对照组细胞ANXA1基因甲基化状况和mRNA表达水平,并用Western-blotting方法检测ANXA1基因蛋白质表达水平．结果发现,NP69细胞ANXA1基因无甲基化,4株NPC细胞系ANXA1基因都存在不同程度的甲基化,甲基化程度与细胞的分化程度和转移潜能相关．NPC细胞ANXA1基因mRNA表达水平降低,低于NP69细胞,其降低的程度与基因的甲基化程度相关．5-aza-2dC能够剂量依赖性地引起ANXA1基因去甲基化,经去甲基化处理后,NPC细胞系ANXA1基因的mRNA和蛋白质的表达水平相应提高．研究证明,NPC细胞系ANXA1基因的mRNA和蛋白质表达水平出现下调,甲基化是导致表达下调的主要原因,5-aza-2dC去甲基化处理能够恢复ANXA1基因的表达水平．     

NP c 1L l 在高脂血症和动脉粥样硬化中的表达分析

目的：研究NPC1L1（Niemann-Pick C1 Like 1）mRNA在单纯高脂血症大鼠和动脉粥样硬化大鼠小肠组织中的表达与差异,探讨其与脂质代谢和动脉粥样硬化之间的关系。方法：通过半定量RT-PCR方法分别检测正常普食组、单纯高脂饲养组和动脉粥样大鼠组小肠组织中NPC1L1 mRNA的表达差异。结果：三个组别大鼠小肠组织中均存在NPC1L2 mRNA,单纯高脂饮食和动脉粥样大鼠小肠组织中NPC1L1 mRNA表达明显高于正常对照大鼠（P〈0．01）;单纯高脂饮食和动脉粥样大鼠小肠组织中NPC1L1 mRNA表达之间无明显差异（P〉0．05）。结论：血脂代谢紊乱与小肠组织中NPC1L1的高表达有关,NPC1L1可能参与了血脂紊乱的病理生理过程;NPC1L1与促成动脉粥样硬化的发生无明显相关性。     

肝X受体激动剂通过上调NPC1基因的表达减轻apoE基因敲除小鼠动脉粥样硬化病变程度

本文研究肝X受体（LXR）激动剂对apoE基因敲除小鼠NPC1表达的影响．52只雄性apoE基因敲除小鼠被随机分成4组：（a）基础组（baseline group,n=10）;（b）对照组（control group,n=14）;（c）LXR激动剂治疗组（treatment group,n=14）;（d）LXR激动剂预防组（prevention group,n=14）．各组小鼠均被给予高脂／高胆固醇饲料喂养;基础组小鼠被赋形剂灌胃处理8周;对照组小鼠被赋形剂灌胃处理14周;LXR激动剂治疗组小鼠在前8周被赋形剂灌胃处理,后6周被T0901317灌胃处理;LXR激动剂预防组小鼠被T0901317灌胃处理14周．采用实时定量PCR,Western blot和免疫组织化学方法分别检测组织中NPC1 mRNA和蛋白质的表达;采用酶法测定血清中总胆固醇（TC）、甘油三酯（TG）、高密度脂蛋白胆固醇（HDL-C）、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇（LDL-C）、载脂蛋白A—I（ApoA—I）和载脂蛋白B（ApoB）含量．另外,我们采用RNA干扰技术沉默人THP-1巨噬细胞NPC1基因表达,并将细胞诱导成泡沫细胞,检测T0901317对该细胞胆固醇流出的影响．结果显示,LXR激动剂治疗组和预防组小鼠的血浆TC,TG,HDL-C和ApoA．I水平都较对照组明显增高（P〈0．05）;LXR激动剂治疗组和预防组小鼠的主动脉粥样硬化斑块和脂质条纹明显少于对照组（P〈0．05）,其中治疗组减少了58.3％,预防组减少了64．2％;LXR激动剂治疗组和预防组小鼠的小肠组织、肝脏组织和主动脉NPC1表达上调（P〈0.05）;和正常THP-1巨噬细胞源性泡沫细胞比较,RNA干扰组胆固醇流出明显减少,T0901317处理组胆固醇流出明显增加,总之,LXR激动剂T0901317能减轻高脂高胆固醇饲料喂养的apoE基因敲除小鼠动脉粥样硬化病变程度并上调肝脏组织、小肠组织和主动脉NPC1的表达,NPC1基因沉默能使细胞胆固醇流出减少。     

JAK3蛋白在鼻咽癌细胞中参与STAT活化并受EB病毒潜伏膜蛋白1调控

为了探讨在鼻咽癌细胞（NPC）中是否存在EB病毒潜伏膜蛋白1（LMP1）/JAK3/STAT信号传导途径,首先采用RT-PCR方法对NPC JAK家族4种成员检测,发现在两株鼻咽癌细胞株CNE1和HNE2中该家族4种成员均有表达.选择最有可能与LMP1相互作用的JAK家族成员JAK3作为我们的研究对象.利用已建立的一株受四环素衍生物强力霉素(doxycycline,Dox)调控的LMP1表达的鼻咽癌细胞系(Tet-on-LMP1 HNE2),诱导Tet-on-LMP1 HNE2细胞LMP1动态表达,蛋白质印迹发现JAK3的表达方式呈剂量和时间依赖性.采用瞬间转染方法将STAT报告基因质粒（GRR-Luc）转染入pTet-on-LMP1 HNE2细胞中,不同剂量的Dox促使LMP1的表达可以激活STAT报告基因活性,在0.06mg/L Dox诱导36 h时,STAT活性最高.在该条件下,加入3 μmol/L JAK3特异性抑制剂WHI-P131时,可抑制STAT的活性.结果表明：JAK3的表达在NPC细胞中受LMP1的调控,LMP1可以通过调控JAK3的表达参与STAT的活化.在鼻咽癌细胞中存在LMP1/JAK3/STAT信号途径并可能在其发生发展过程中起重要作用.     

ATF6调节ABCA1基因的表达

ATP结合盒式运载蛋白A1(ATP-binding cassette transporter A1,ABCA1)是近年来发现的极其重要的脂质转运大分子膜蛋白,它可将过量胆固醇从细胞内向细胞外输送到载脂蛋白并包装成高密度脂蛋白(HDL)的膜蛋白,促进胆固醇的逆转运.初步研究转录因子ATF6对ABCA1的表达调控,结果发现,ATF6在人胚胎肾细胞HEK293内剂量依赖性地调节ABCA1基因转录及蛋白质表达. ATF6调节ABCA1与内质网应激信号通路无关. 启动子序列缺失与突变分析表明ATF6作用区位于ABCA1启动子上游-156～-928bp之间, 可能需要E-box的参与,但不需要DR4元件.进而,动物试验结果显示用腺病毒在C57小鼠肝脏过表达ATF6,在mRNA水平上调ABCA1. 本文的研究发现了ATF6新的功能以及调控ABCA1的新机制.     

Human NPC1L1 and NPC1 can functionally substitute for the ncr genes to promote reproductive development in C. elegans

The NPC1 and NPC1L1 are related genes whose general role is in cholesterol trafficking. However, reduction of activity of these genes results in very different phenotypes. Niemann–Pick C disease type 1 is a neurodegenerative disease with no current treatment, where cholesterol accumulates in lysosomes. The disease arises due to autosomal recessive mutations in the NPC1 gene. The NPC1L1 gene has recently been identified as the target for the drug ezetimibe (Zetia), a cholesterol absorption inhibitor, and has been shown to be an intestinal cholesterol transporter. We demonstrate that human NPC1L1, as well as human NPC1, can functionally substitute for the Caenorhabditis elegans genes ncr-1 and/or ncr-2. These genes are known to play a role in the process of dauer formation, a process which can be modulated by cholesterol in sensitized genetic backgrounds. Our results demonstrate that these human proteins retain some functional conservation, though their biological roles are vastly different.     

The Cytosolic Adaptor AP‐1A Is Essential for the Trafficking and Function of Niemann‐Pick Type C Proteins

Niemann‐Pick type C (NPC) disease is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder characterized by over‐accumulation of low‐density lipoprotein‐derived cholesterol and glycosphingolipids in late endosomes/lysosomes (LE/L) throughout the body. Human mutations in either NPC1 or NPC2 genes have been directly associated with impaired cholesterol efflux from LE/L. Independent from its role in cholesterol homeostasis and its NPC2 partner, NPC1 was unexpectedly identified as a critical player controlling intracellular entry of filoviruses such as Ebola. In this study, a yeast three‐hybrid system revealed that the NPC1 cytoplasmic tail directly interacts with the clathrin adaptor protein AP‐1 via its acidic/di‐leucine motif. Consequently, a nonfunctional AP‐1A cytosolic complex resulted in a typical NPC‐like phenotype mainly due to a direct impairment of NPC1 trafficking to LE/L and a partial secretion of NPC2. Furthermore, the mislocalization of NPC1 was not due to cholesterol accumulation in LE/L, as it was not rescued upon treatment with Mβ‐cyclodextrin, which almost completely eliminated intracellular free cholesterol. Our cumulative data demonstrate that the cytosolic clathrin adaptor AP‐1A is essential for the lysosomal targeting and function of NPC1 and NPC2.     

Membrane topology of human NPC1L1, a key protein in enterohepatic cholesterol absorption

The Niemann-Pick C1 Like 1 (NPC1L1) is a predicted polytopic membrane protein that is critical for cholesterol absorption. NPC1L1 takes up free cholesterol into cells through vesicular endocytosis. Ezetimibe, a clinically used cholesterol absorption inhibitor, blocks the endocytosis of NPC1L1 thereby inhibiting cholesterol uptake. Human NPC1L1 is a 1,332-amino acid protein with a putative sterol-sensing domain (SSD) that shows sequence homo­logy to HMG-CoA reductase (HMGCR), Niemann-Pick C1 (NPC1), and SREBP cleavage-activating protein (SCAP). Here, we use protease protection and immunofluorescence in selectively permeabilized cells to study the topology of human NPC1L1. Our data indicate that NPC1L1 contains 13 transmembrane helices. The NH₂-terminus of NPC1L1 is in the lumen while the COOH-terminus projects to the cytosol. human NPC1L1 contains seven small cytoplasmic loops—four small and three large luminal loops—one of which has been reported to bind ezetimibe. Ezetimibe-glucuronide, the major metabolite of ezetimibe in vivo, can block the internalization of NPC1L1 and cholesterol. The membrane topology of NPC1L1 is similar to that of NPC1, and the putative SSD of NPC1L1 is oriented in the same manner as those of HMGCR, NPC1, and SCAP. The defined topology of NPC1L1 provides necessary information for further dissecting the functions of the different domains of NPC1L1.     

Expression patterns of sterol transporters NPC1 and NPC2 in the cnidarian–dinoflagellate symbiosis

The symbiotic interaction between cnidarians (e.g., corals and sea anemones) and photosynthetic dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium is triggered by both host–symbiont recognition processes and metabolic exchange between the 2 partners. The molecular communication is crucial for homeostatic regulation of the symbiosis, both under normal conditions and during stresses that further lead to symbiosis collapse. It is therefore important to identify and fully characterise the key players of this intimate interaction at the symbiotic interface. In this study, we determined the cellular and subcellular localization and expression of the sterol‐trafficking Niemann–Pick type C proteins (NPC1 and NPC2) in the symbiotic sea anemones Anemonia viridis and Aiptasia sp. We first established that NPC1 is localised within vesicles in host tissues and to the symbiosome membranes in several anthozoan species. We demonstrated that the canonical NPC2‐a protein is mainly expressed in the epidermis, whereas the NPC2‐d protein is closely associated with symbiosome membranes. Furthermore, we showed that the expression of the NPC2‐d protein is correlated with symbiont presence in healthy symbiotic specimens. As npc2‐d is a cnidarian‐specific duplicated gene, we hypothesised that it probably arose from a subfunctionalisation process that might result in a gain of function and symbiosis adaptation in anthozoans. Niemann–Pick type C proteins may be key players in a functional symbiosis and be useful tools to study host–symbiont interactions in the anthozoan–dinoflagellate association.     

The AAA ATPase VPS4/SKD1 Regulates Endosomal Cholesterol Trafficking Independently of ESCRT‐III

The exit of low‐density lipoprotein derived cholesterol (LDL‐C) from late endosomes (LE)/lysosomes (Ly) is mediated by Niemann–Pick C1 (NPC1), a multipass integral membrane protein on the limiting membranes of LE/Ly, and by NPC2, a cholesterol‐binding protein in the lumen of LE/Ly. NPC2 delivers cholesterol to the N‐terminal domain of NPC1, which is believed to insert cholesterol into the limiting membrane for subsequent transport to other subcellular organelles. Few cytoplasmic factors have been identified to govern cholesterol efflux from LE/Ly, and much less is known about the underlying molecular mechanisms. Here we establish VPS4, an AAA ATPase that has a well‐established role in disassembling the ESCRT (endosomal sorting complex required for transport)‐III polymer, as an important regulator of endosomal cholesterol transport. Knocking down VPS4 in HeLa cells resulted in prominent accumulation of LDL‐C in LE/Ly, and disrupted cholesterol homeostatic responses at the endoplasmic reticulum. The level and localization of NPC1 and NPC2 appeared to be normal in VPS4 knockdown cells. Importantly, depleting any of the ESCRT‐III components did not exert a significant effect on endosomal cholesterol transport. Our results thus identify an important cytoplasmic regulator of endosomal cholesterol trafficking and represent the first functional separation of VPS4 from ESCRT‐III.     

Standardization of PCR-RFLP analysis of nsSNP rs1468384 of NPC1L1 gene

Niemann-Pick C1-like 1 (NPC1L1) protein, a newly identified sterol influx transporter, located at the apical membrane of the enterocyte, which may actively facilitate the uptake of cholesterol by promoting the passage of sterols across the brush border membrane of the enterocyte. It effects intestinal cholesterol absorption and intracellular transport and as such is an integral part of complex process of cholesterol homeostasis. The study of population data for the distribution of these single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) of NPC1L1 has lead to the identification of six non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (nsSNP). The in vitro analysis using the software MuPro and StructureSNP shows that nsSNP M510I (rs1468384), which involves A→G base pair change leads to decrease in the stability of the protein. A reproducible and a cost-effective PCR-RFLP based assay was developed to screen for the SNP among population data. This SNP has been studied in Caucasian, Asian, and African American populations. Till date, no data is available on Indian population. The distribution of M510I NPC1L1 genotype was estimated in the North Western Indian Population as a test case. The allele distribution in Indian Population differs significantly from that of other populations. The methodology thus proved to be robust enough to bring out these differences.