Ranging Patterns in Relation to Seasonality and Frugivory Among Cercopithecus campbelli, C. petaurista, and C. diana in the Taï Forest

My objective is to better understand the influences of seasonality and frugivory on ranging patterns for 3 guenon species of the Ta? Forest: Cercopithecus campbelli, C. petaurista, and C. diana). Over a 17-mo period, I gathered data on the daily path length, home range size, and home range use for 2 habituated groups of each species. The ranging patterns of the 3 species were very similar to each other and across seasons. Further, the ranging patterns were not closely related to fruit abundance or consumption. Each species had a long-ranging strategy with long daily ranges relative to home range size and little repeated use of areas on successive days, which may relate to territory and boundary patrols, especially for Cercopithecus diana. I compare them with other guenon communities and demonstrate that the ranging patterns of the 3 species are more similar than the ranging patterns of sympatric guenons in other communities. I discuss the results in relation to the association of Cercopithecus campbelli and C. petaurista with C. diana for antipredator benefits.     

Pattern of flower size variation along an altitudinal gradient differs between Impatiens textori and Impatiens noli-tangere

Studies of factors influencing spatial variation in flower size offer insights into floral evolution. We investigated altitudinal variations in five flower dimensions of two native Japanese Impatiens species (I. textori and I. noli-tangere) and their interactions with their faunal visitors. These two species have similar floral traits, including flower shape, flowering time, and pollinator species; both species are pollinated mainly by Bombus diversus. In I. textori, all measured flower dimensions were negatively correlated with altitude. In contrast, in I. noli-tangere, no measured flower dimensions correlated with altitude. Thus, the altitudinal pattern of flower size variation differed between these congeneric co-habiting herbaceous plant species. The different patterns suggest that the factors (e.g. altitudinal variations of abiotic factors) that cause variation of flower size differ between these two Impatiens species even though focal species have similar floral traits (e.g. flower shape, flowering time, and pollinator species).     

Trait-based species richness: ecology and macroevolution

Understanding the origins of species richness patterns is a fundamental goal in ecology and evolutionary biology. Much research has focused on explaining two kinds of species richness patterns: (i) spatial species richness patterns (e.g. the latitudinal diversity gradient), and (ii) clade-based species richness patterns (e.g. the predominance of angiosperm species among plants). Here, I highlight a third kind of richness pattern: trait-based species richness (e.g. the number of species with each state of a character, such as diet or body size). Trait-based richness patterns are relevant to many topics in ecology and evolution, from ecosystem function to adaptive radiation to the paradox of sex. Although many studies have described particular trait-based richness patterns, the origins of these patterns remain far less understood, and trait-based richness has not been emphasised as a general category of richness patterns. Here, I describe a conceptual framework for how trait-based richness patterns arise compared to other richness patterns. A systematic review suggests that trait-based richness patterns are most often explained by when each state originates within a group (i.e. older states generally have higher richness), and not by differences in transition rates among states or faster diversification of species with certain states. This latter result contrasts with the widespread emphasis on diversification rates in species-richness research. I show that many recent studies of spatial richness patterns are actually studies of trait-based richness patterns, potentially confounding the causes of these patterns. Finally, I describe a plethora of unanswered questions related to trait-based richness patterns.     

Contrasting patterns of selection between MHC I and II across populations of Humboldt and Magellanic penguins

The evolutionary and adaptive potential of populations or species facing an emerging infectious disease depends on their genetic diversity in genes, such as the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). In birds, MHC class I deals predominantly with intracellular infections (e.g., viruses) and MHC class II with extracellular infections (e.g., bacteria). Therefore, patterns of MHC I and II diversity may differ between species and across populations of species depending on the relative effect of local and global environmental selective pressures, genetic drift, and gene flow. We hypothesize that high gene flow among populations of Humboldt and Magellanic penguins limits local adaptation in MHC I and MHC II, and signatures of selection differ between markers, locations, and species. We evaluated the MHC I and II diversity using 454 next‐generation sequencing of 100 Humboldt and 75 Magellanic penguins from seven different breeding colonies. Higher genetic diversity was observed in MHC I than MHC II for both species, explained by more than one MHC I loci identified. Large population sizes, high gene flow, and/or similar selection pressures maintain diversity but limit local adaptation in MHC I. A pattern of isolation by distance was observed for MHC II for Humboldt penguin suggesting local adaptation, mainly on the northernmost studied locality. Furthermore, trans‐species alleles were found due to a recent speciation for the genus or convergent evolution. High MHC I and MHC II gene diversity described is extremely advantageous for the long‐term survival of the species.     

Parallel trends in the species diversity of west indian birds and bats

Summary In this paper I compare several biogeographic patterns of West Indian resident land birds and bats, including species-area and trophic diversity-area relationships, the number of islands inhabited per species and levels of endemism, trophic structure as compared with tropical mainland areas, and the degree of faunal simlarity between islands of similar sizes but different locations. In most respects, the bat and bird patterns are strikingly similar. Groups of birds that are conspicuously missing from the Antilles because of the absence of appropriate resources also have missing chiropteran counterparts. Plant-visiting bats and birds are better-represented in terms of relative number of species and, in birds, in biomass, on the Lesser Antilles than on the mainland (e.g. Panama). Small Antillean islands tend to share more species of birds and bats than do larger islands. Stochastic (sensu Simberloff 1978), deterministic, and interactive (e.g. competitive and trophic interactions) factors appear to underly these biogeographic trends. No evidence exists to suggest that Caribbean bats and birds have negatively affected each other's diversity.     

Patterns in specific leaf area and the structure of a temperate heath community

Relationships between the distribution and specific leaf area (SLA: leaf area per unit dry mass) of six heath (Ericaceae) species were investigated along an environmental gradient between peat bogs and conifer forest in British Columbia, Canada. I asked whether patterns in SLA could help to identify the processes shaping plant distributional patterns. Specifically, I assessed whether (i) species’ distributions across the environmental gradient are correlated with SLA (ii) relationships between plant distributional patterns and SLA are similar among bogs with different shrub species (iii) intraspecific patterns in SLA parallel interspecific relationships between distributions and SLA, and (iv) intraspecific patterns are environmentally determined. Results showed that distributional patterns were often correlated with SLA; species with lower SLA were more abundant towards the centre of bogs, while species with higher SLA were more abundant in forest. Intraspecific patterns in SLA paralleled distributional patterns across the gradient; individuals located towards the centre of bogs had lower SLA than those growing in forest. A transplantation experiment showed that plants typically altered their SLA according to local environmental conditions. However, one bog showed no relationship between species’ distributions and SLA. This bog lacked the two species with lowest SLA, which typically occurred at the centre of other bogs. In their absence, species with higher SLA that typically occurred in forest increased in abundance towards the centre of the bog, where they obtained lower values of SLA. Therefore, while distributional patterns were often closely associated with SLA, plasticity in SLA was associated with increased breadth of species’ distributions across the gradient. Overall results indicate SLA may serve as a useful proxy for a range of life history traits to help elucidate the processes structuring plant communities.     

Seed-coat microsculpturing and its systematic application in Isatis (Brassicaceae) and allied genera in Iran

In order to examine the systematic application of seed-coat microsculpturing in Isatis, seed surfaces of 23 species (41 populations) in four genera of tribe Isatideae were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Eight types of basic ornamentation patterns were recognized among the studied specimens. Of these, the reticulate–areolate type was the most common and was found in the genera Isatis, Pachypterygium, Samerari and Tauscheria and 15 species (e.g., I. cappodocica, I. kotschyana and I. tinctoria). The reticulate type, the second most frequent, occurred in 7 species while other types each were represented by only one or 2 species. Although different populations of a given species show similar seed-surface sculpturing in most cases, in some polymorphic species like I. cappadocica and I. kotschyana these patterns were variable among populations. To some extent the variation corresponds to infraspecific taxa for some species, but the differences are not significant enough to be useful in the delimitation of the subspecies recognized by previous workers. Moreover, seed-coat characters do not support the separation of genera Isatis, Pachypterygium, Sameraria and Tauscheria.     

Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis of the genomic restriction fragments of coagulase-negative staphylococci

Abstract The genomes of 47 coagulase-negative staphylococcal strains assigned to different species were analysed by pulsed-field electrophoresis. The strains were clustered on the basis of their similarity in the Sma I restriction patterns into various groups, each group consisting of the type strain and the strains whose Sma I restriction patterns were similar to that of the type strain. The Sma I restriction groups seem to correspond to the following species: Staphylococcus warneri, S. hominis, S. xylosus, S. lugdunensi, S. kloosii, S. haemolyticus, S. lentus, S. cohnii, S. equorum, S. chromogenes, S. saprophyticus, S. simulans, S. carnosus, S. capitis and S. auricularis . The species S. sciuri, S. caseolyticus, S. gallinarum, S. epidermidis and S. schleiferi were represented only by their type strains and showed no similarity in their Sma I restriction patterns neither to each other nor to all the species investigated here. Thus, the classification of coagulase-negative staphylococcal strains into the above species seems to be confirmed also by genome restriction analysis carried out by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis.     

Inter-strain relationships among wine leuconostocs and their divergence from other Leuconostoc species, as revealed by low frequency restriction fragment analysis of genomic DNA

Thirty Leuconostoc oenos strains, representing 28 different isolates, were distributed into 20 genomic groups according to PFGE patterns of restriction digests. The 8 bp-specific enzymes Sfi I, Not I and Asc I cleaved the Leuc. oenos DNA in a mean of 17, 11 and four fragments respectively and Sma I produced more than 50 fragments per genome. The strain differentiating capacity of the four enzymes was similar; only two related genomic groups failed to be distinguished by Asc I or Not I. Genomic relationships between Leuc. oenos strains were quantified by numerical analysis of Not I and Sfi I banding patterns. More than half of the strains, including the starters ML34 and PSU-1, formed a major cluster. The average size of the Leuc. oenos genome was estimated as 1.86 Mb. Although similar values were obtained for the genomes of Leuc. mesenteroides, Leuc. pseudomesenteroides, Leuc. gelidum and Leuc. citreum, a significant divergence between wine and non-wine species was inferred from comparisons of genome cleavage frequencies, determined with five different enzymes.     

Critical evaluation of a long-term, locally-based wildlife monitoring program in West Africa

Effective monitoring programs are required to understand and mitigate biodiversity declines, particularly in tropical ecosystems where conservation conflicts are severe yet ecological data are scarce. “Locally-based” monitoring has been advanced as an approach to improve biodiversity monitoring in developing countries, but the accuracy of data from many such programs has not been adequately assessed. I evaluated a long-term, patrol-based wildlife monitoring system in Mole National Park, Ghana, through comparison with camera trapping and an assessment of sampling error. I found that patrol observations underrepresented the park’s mammal community, recording only two-thirds as many species as camera traps over a common sampling period (2006–2008). Agreement between methods was reasonable for larger, diurnal and social species (e.g., larger ungulates and primates), but camera traps were more effective at detecting smaller, solitary and nocturnal species (particularly carnivores). Data from patrols and cameras corresponded for some spatial patterns of management interest (e.g., community turnover, edge effect on abundance) but differed for others (e.g., richness, edge effect on diversity). Long-term patrol observations were influenced by uneven sampling effort and considerable variation in replicate counts. Despite potential benefits of locally-based monitoring, these results suggest that data from this and similar programs may be subject to biases that complicate interpretation of wildlife population and community dynamics. Careful attention to monitoring objectives, methodological design and robust analysis is required if locally-based approaches are to satisfy an aim of reliable biodiversity monitoring, and there is a need for greater international support in the creation and maintenance of local monitoring capacity.     

弯孢类炭疽菌菌株的RAPD分析与分类研究

通过RAPD分析对38个不同寄主来源的弯孢类炭疽菌菌株的系统发育及分类进行研究。结果表明:许多引物的RAPD扩增带型在种内是相似或一致的,而种间差异较大。UPGMA聚类分析的结果表明:38个弯孢类炭疽菌菌株被聚为6个类群,群内菌株之间遗传相似性较高,而群间遗传相似性较低;群与群之间分界明显,表明种的分界相当明显。因此,RAPD分析所反映的种间亲缘关系,将有助于疑难种分类地位的确定和近似种的区分。RAPD分析的结果还揭示了一些近似种的分类关系,如按传统方法分别鉴定为Colletotrichumtruncatum、C.circinans和辣椒炭疽菌C.capsici的许多菌株聚类在同一群内,有很高的遗传相似性,实验结果支持它们为同一个种。实验中还发现5条辣椒炭疽菌的特有片断,分别由引物OPE-14、OPH-15(2条)、OPM-12和OPM-20扩增产生。这些特异带的发现对该菌的快速检测和鉴定具有重要意义。     

Phylogenetic niche conservatism and the evolutionary basis of ecological speciation

Phylogenetic niche conservatism (PNC) typically refers to the tendency of closely related species to be more similar to each other in terms of niche than they are to more distant relatives. This has been implicated as a potential driving force in speciation and other species‐richness patterns, such as latitudinal gradients. However, PNC has not been very well defined in most previous studies. Is it a pattern or a process? What are the underlying endogenous (e.g. genetic) and exogenous (e.g. ecological) factors that cause niches to be conserved? What degree of similarity is necessary to qualify as PNC? Is it possible for the evolutionary processes causing niches to be conserved to also result in niche divergence in different habitats? Here, we revisit these questions, codifying a theoretical and operational definition of PNC as a mechanistic evolutionary process resulting from several factors. We frame this both from a macroevolutionary and population‐genetic perspective. We discuss how different axes of physical (e.g. geographic) and environmental (e.g. climatic) heterogeneity interact with the fundamental process of PNC to produce different outcomes of ecological speciation. We also review tests for PNC, and suggest ways that these could be improved or better utilized in future studies. Ultimately, PNC as a process has a well‐defined mechanistic basis in organisms, and future studies investigating ecological speciation would be well served to consider this, and frame hypothesis testing in terms of the processes and expected patterns described herein. The process of PNC may lead to patterns where niches are conserved (more similar than expected), constrained (divergent within a limited subset of available niches), or divergent (less similar than expected), based on degree of phylogenetic relatedness between species.     

Highly contrasted population genetic structures in a host–parasite pair in the Caribbean Sea

Evolution and population genetic structure of marine species across the Caribbean Sea are shaped by two complex factors: the geological history and the present pattern of marine currents. Characterizing and comparing the genetic structures of codistributed species, such as host–parasite associations, allow discriminating the relative importance of environmental factors and life history traits that influenced gene flow and demographic events. Using microsatellite and Cytochrome Oxidase I markers, we investigated if a host–parasite pair (the heart urchin Meoma ventricosa and its parasitic pea crab Dissodactylus primitivus) exhibits comparable population genetic structures in the Caribbean Sea and how the observed patterns match connectivity regions from predictive models and other taxa. Highly contrasting patterns were found: the host showed genetic homogeneity across the whole studied area, whereas the parasite displayed significant differentiation at regional and local scales. The genetic diversity of the parasitic crabs (both in microsatellites and COI) was distributed in two main groups, Panama–Jamaica–St Croix on the one hand, and the South‐Eastern Caribbean on the other. At a smaller geographical scale, Panamanian and Jamaican parasite populations were genetically more similar, while more genetic differentiation was found within the Lesser Antilles. Both species showed a signature of population expansion during the Quaternary. Some results match predictive models or data from previous studies (e.g., the Western‐Eastern dichotomy in the parasite) while others do not (e.g., genetic differentiation within the Lesser Antilles). The sharp dissimilarity of genetic structure of these codistributed species outlines the importance of population expansion events and/or contrasted patterns of gene flow. This might be linked to differences in several life history traits such as fecundity (higher for the host), swimming capacity of larval stages (higher for the parasite), and habitat availability (higher for the host).     

Tissue culture‐induced genomic alteration in maize (Zea mays) inbred lines and F1 hybrids

Genomic alteration is a common phenomenon associated with plant tissue culture, which often encompasses genetic changes and epigenetic modifications (e.g. cytosine methylation). Here, we studied genomic alteration in maize by assessing calli and regenerated plants derived from three inbred lines (M17, J7 and JC) and two pairs of reciprocal F1 hybrids (pair I: M17/J7 and J7/M17 and pair II: M17/JC and JC/M17). By employing two molecular markers, the amplified fragment length polymorphism and methylation‐sensitive amplified polymorphism, we found that both types of genomic alterations occurred in calli and regenerated plants of all the studied maize inbred lines and F1 hybrids, but the extent and pattern of changes varied substantially across the genotypes. Among the three inbred lines, M17 showed markedly higher frequencies of both genetic (from 2.1% to 3.8%) and methylation alterations (from 6.5% to 9.9%, by adding up the various patterns) than the other two lines which showed similar frequencies for both types of alterations (genetic: 0.5–1.8%, methylation: 2.1–3.7%). Of the two F1 hybrid pairs, while pair I showed genetic variation frequencies similar to that of the inbred parent with lower changing frequency and pair II was intermediate of those of the parents, both pairs showed frequencies of methylation alteration more or less intermediate of those of their inbred parental lines. Parent‐of‐origin effects in both genetic and methylation changes were detected in only one of the hybrid pairs (primarily pair II) for a given changing pattern. Statistical testing confirmed the genotypic difference in both genetic and methylation (hypomethylation) alterations among the regenerants. Taken together, it could be concluded that the frequency and pattern of both genetic and cytosine methylation alterations in maize tissue culture were largely genetic context‐dependent traits, but stochasticity also played an important part. F1 hybrids were not significantly more stable than their inbred parental lines under tissue culture conditions.     

Amphibians and Reptiles of Luzon Island,Philippines: the Herpetofauna of Pantabangan-Carranglan Watershed,Nueva Ecija Province,Caraballo Mountain Range

We present detailed species accounts for fifty-nine(59) species of amphibians and reptiles(17 frogs, 14 skinks, 3 agamids, 6 gekkonid lizards, 2 varanids, and 17 snakes) from Pantabangan-Carranglan Watershed, which lies within the Caraballo Mountain Range, whose biota is poorly-known. This was also the first extensive survey of herpetofauna within the watershed. Together with data from previous literature reviews, our records bring the total number of species of amphibians and reptiles for the Caraballo Mountain Range to 66. Forty-two(42) species from the area were Philippine endemics, with 25 species recorded only from Luzon faunal region. Seven species of herpetofauna are associated with unresolved taxonomic issues(new species and species complexes needing taxonomic partitioning, e.g. splitting of species groups). Two species recorded from the area were rarely represented in museum collections. Major distributional and elevational range extensions were recorded for several species. Comparison with Luzon's other mountain ranges showed that the Caraballo Mountain Range is similar, in terms of species composition, to the northern Sierra Madre and Cordillera Mountain Ranges. The result of this survey showed the Caraballo Mountain Range and its mountains as a possible new center of herpetofaunal diversity and endemicity within Luzon. The importance of the Caraballo Mountain Range as an important biogeographic link merits further study.     

Molecular markers to discriminate among four pest species of Helicoverpa (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The four significant pest species in the Helicoverpa genus (H. armigera, H. assulta, H. punctigera and H. zea) are morphologically similar and can only be reliably distinguished through dissection of adult genitalia. Two partial regions of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), the cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) and the cytochrome b (Cyt b) genes were amplified by PCR and digested with restriction endonucleases. The restriction patterns, generated by the endonucleases BstZ17I and HphI, demonstrated reliable differentiation of the four Helicoverpa pest species. This technique is fast, reliable and effective at distinguishing specimens irrespective of their life stages and offers support to conventional taxonomic differentiation based on morphological characters.     

Common patterns in the fluctuations of macrozoobenthic species living at different places on tidal flats in the Wadden Sea

During 17 successive years (1969–1985) the macrozoobenthos has been sampled quantitatively in the latewinter/early-spring period at 15 stations scattered over Balgzand (a 50 km² tidal flat area in the western-most part of the Wadden Sea) and at 5 stations located in a small (3 km²) area 150 km away from Balgzand in the eastern part of the Dutch Wadden Sea. In 25 species, numbers per m² were, in most years, sufficiently high at 2 or more of the Balgzand stations to allow between-station comparisons of fluctuation patterns. Comparisons were made by rank correlation. Out of a total of 1003 of such comparisons that could be made with the Balgzand data, 47% yielded significantly positive correlations and less than 1% significantly negative ones. Thus, nearly half of the fluctuation patterns of the populations living at the 15 stations within the Balgzand area showed a high similarity. Synchronization of population fluctuations was augmented particularly by the incidence of severe winters (causing low spring numbers in about a quarter of the species that were sensitive to low temperatures and high reproductive success in several species during the subsequent summer) and further by the increasing trends in numbers in about half of the species, probably as a consequence of eutrophication.Similar results as on Balgzand were obtained within the restricted area Groninger Wad in the eastern part of the Dutch Wadden Sea (Essink & Beukema, this issue). Comparison of the fluctuation patterns between the 2 distant areas also yielded high numbers of significantly positive correlations, though the proportion of the patterns that were similar was lower than these proportions were within the 2 areas.It is concluded that common patterns of fluctuation in numerical densities of macrobenthic species can be assessed over vast areas. Such common patterns will represent the normal or base-line fluctuations that may be used to distinguish (as departures from such patterns) the effects of local disturbing influences.     

黄颡鱼属物种的RAPD分子鉴定及杂种遗传分析

使用20个随机引物研究了4种黄颡鱼的RAPD图谱,其中6个可以用来准确鉴别4个种,分别是S1、S2、S5、S7、S8、S17。同时也分析了4种黄颡鱼之间的亲缘关系,发现种间遗传距离D值在0.5000左右波动,黄颡鱼-叉尾黄颡鱼、瓦氏黄颡鱼-光泽黄颡鱼之间的D值最小,分别是0.4816和0.4017。聚类图显示,黄颡鱼和叉尾黄颡鱼属同一分支;瓦氏黄颡鱼和光泽黄颡鱼属另一分支,说明它们之间分别有更近的亲缘关系。另外,采用黄颡鱼作母本,瓦氏黄颡鱼作父本,获得了杂交F1代,对F1代进行RAPD分析,发现了杂种遗传图谱的三种变化情况:叠加、叠加-变异、叠加-弱化,表明F1代DNA多态性增强,杂合性提高,预示着杂种优势的可能性。       

Molecular-based identification and phylogeny of Oligonychus species (Acari: Tetranychidae)

The genus Oligonychus has been morphologically divided into two groups based on the direction of curvature of the aedeagus and includes some morphologically similar species that are difficult to distinguish. To develop DNA-based methods for identifying Oligonychus species and to determine the phylogenetic relationships among them, we examined the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene of mitochondrial DNA and the internal transcribed spacer and 28S regions of nuclear ribosomal RNA gene for 17 species. Based on the genetic distances (p-distances) of the three DNA regions, the range of intraspecific divergence was found to be below (and not overlap) the range of interspecific divergence, which allowed the 17 species to be discriminated correctly, consistent with their classification based on morphology. Phylogenetic trees constructed by neighbor-joining and Bayesian methods clearly showed two clades, consisting of species whose aedeagi curve ventrally and dorsally, respectively. Three Oligonychus species inhabiting gramineous plants formed clearly defined subclades.     

Convergent body flattening in a clade of tropical rock-using lizards (Scincidae: Lygosominae)

The repeated occurrence of similar morphologies in organisms from similar habitats provides good evidence of convergent selection, and convergent patterns of evolutionary change. In lizards, a flattened morphology has often been noted; however, whether this trait is convergent in specific habitats has never been tested using phylogenetic methods. The present study examined patterns of morphological convergence in 18 species of tropical Lygosomine skinks from three broad habitat categories (generalist, leaf litter-dwelling, and rock-using species). In general, although there where relatively few morphological differences of species from different habitats, phylogenetic analyses revealed that rock-using species have consistently and repeatedly evolved a dorsoventrally flattened head and body. The adaptive basis of this flattened morphology is consistent with both biomechanical predictions of performance (e.g. climbing locomotion) and ecology (e.g. use of rock crevices, camouflage) of species that occupy rocky habitats.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 94 , 399–411.