遗传资源获取和利益分享与知识产权保护

随着人类对遗传资源开发利用程度的加剧、物种资源不断减少以及国际交流合作的日益频繁,遗传资源获取和利益分享中的知识产权问题日益受到国际社会的关注。为了保护和持续利用遗传资源,本文根据《生物多样性公约》第15条的规定,以及国际社会在遗传资源获取和利益分享方面的做法,分析了我国遗传资源保护和利用以及知识产权保护的现状,提出建立和完善保护遗传资源知识产权的专利制度,遗传资源的管理制度以及遗传资源保护和利用的市场化机制等管理措施,最后,对中国和阿根廷NIDERA公司在大豆遗传资源交换,合作研究和利益分享的案例进行了分析。     

《生物多样性公约》对遗传资源国际交流政策的影响

《生物多样性公约》于1992年在巴西里约热内卢签订,1993年生效。该公约提出了“国家对生物遗传资源拥有主权、获取生物遗传资源须事先得到资源所有者的知情同意、利用生物遗传资源所产生的利益应由资源所有者和开发者公平分享”三项基本原则,其生效与实施促进了各国生物多样性保护的立法行动,在维护资源原产国利益方面发挥了积极的作用,同时也给遗传资源的国际交流增添了一些障碍。本文介绍了《生物多样性公约》中有关生物遗传资源获取和利益分享的条款及其对国际交流政策的影响,并提出了加强遗传资源国际交换的对策和建议。     

保障国家公园体制试点区社区居民利益分享的公平与可持续性——基于社会-生态系统意义认知的研究

建立国家公园旨在保护生态系统完整性并为民众提供多样化的使用机会,保障利益相关者利益分享的公平与可持续性。对国家公园社区居民的资源使用而言,需要他们认可保护地管理中的利益分享规则,从而规范行为,促进系统的稳健性。影响规则认可与相应行为的关键在于各个资源使用者如何评估资源价值,以及如何形成价值共识。基于社会-生态系统理论,研究利用一个界定资源价值与形成使用规则的分析框架,通过对资源价值界定的情境认知、对生态系统的意义认知和对可能规则的态度进行分析,研究武夷山国家公园体制试点建设进程中社区对"利益"的动态认知与形成原因、潜在行为变动对系统"稳健性"的影响和促进利益分享规则形成的路径。分析发现,①在保护地管理发展过程中,社区认为其以往存在和国家公园的出现有利于资源的生计带动;②武夷山生态系统的意义首先在于其多样化的物质供给,其次是作为文化遗产和商品所带来精神满足,同时具有生态保护价值;③社区对利益分享规则的态度取决于规则在时空上的应用是否影响他们对生态系统意义所认定的优先次序。因此,研究提出一个用于规则形成的协商空间,从不同资源使用者利益认知角度引导其认知趋同,最终提高社区对规则的接受程度与行为规范,保证社会-生态系统的稳健性。     

《粮食和农业植物遗传资源国际条约》实施进展

简要叙述了《粮食和农业植物遗传资源国际条约》的目标和内容以及自生效以来取得的新进展,包括供资战略的实施、履约进展、方便获得和利益分享多边系统建设以及促进履约的计划和措施等,以期为我国植物遗传资源工作者和政府有关部门提供参考。     

《生物多样性公约》获取与惠益分享议题国际谈判动态研究

1993年生效的《生物多样性公约》(CBD,the Convention on Biological Diversity)将获取与惠益分享(ABS,access and benefit sharing)作为其三大目标之一。2010年在CBD缔约方大会第10次会议(COP-10)上达成了《生物多样性公约关于遗传资源获取与公平和公正地分享其利用所产生惠益的名古屋议定书》(简称"《名古屋议定书》"),标志着获取与惠益分享议题取得了实质性进展。随后又组织召开了3次政府间委员会会议,《名古屋议定书》于2014年10月在韩国平昌召开COP-12期间生效,并在2014年10月13-17日召开了《名古屋议定书》缔约方大会第1次会议(COP/MOP-1)。本文系统总结和梳理了获取与惠益分享议题产生背景、关键议题争论的焦点、谈判历程和发展动态,深入分析了欧盟、非洲集团、瑞士等主要国家集团和非政府组织(NGOs)、工商界等非国家行为体(NSAs)在获取与惠益分享国际谈判中的立场、策略和作用,讨论了《名古屋议定书》对发展中国家和发达国家的利益体现、影响以及中国面临的挑战。     

浅谈生物医药产业技术创新战略联盟

详细介绍了产业技术创新战略联盟的定义,分析了国外生物医药领域产学研合作的先进经验,阐述了国外(美国)生物医药领域产业技术创新战略联盟运作模式及借鉴意义,深入探讨了目前国内生物医药产业技术创新战略联盟的现状及存在的问题,并从政府、企业、高校及研究机构以及联盟本身四个层面提出生物医药产业技术创新战略联盟的发展思路和对策。     

新世纪保护区的新模式

随着社会、经济和文化的发展以及科学技术的进步,保护区的概念和管理方式也发生了一系列的变化,明显地表现在从堡垒式的孤岛状单纯的保护模式,经过把保护与发展结合、拥有多功能作用的生物圈保护区管理模式,发展到要广交伙伴、共同管理、利益公平分享的生物区域规划和管理的新方向,即所谓网络式管理模式。保护生物多样性不仅具有社会、生态和文化的价值,必需同时要使资源拥有者和管理者得到应有的经济利益。保护区发展过程这种理论上的概括,是建筑在世界各地实践的经验基础上的。还在 1994年,中国 21世纪议程就指出了这个进程,它要…     

“动物福利”教学设计

1 设计背景 “动物福利”是北京师范大学附属中学高二年级“生命伦理学选修课”中的一个专题。茫茫宇宙中,动物和人类共同分享着一个地球,文明人道地对待动物,与人类自身的利益息息相关。世界上已有100多个国家和地区制定实施了旨在保护动物福利的法律法规。而我国的动物福利状况不容乐观。     

国际政府间组织对传统知识议题的态度以及中国的对策建议

传统知识是多个国际政府间组织的重要议题,各个组织开展了一系列讨论,形成了相关报告和决议,反映了不同的利益诉求,也表达了对于传统知识的不同见解和立场。在国际政府间组织中,以《生物多样性公约》为代表的国际组织关注环境与生物;以世界知识产权组织和世界贸易组织为代表的国际组织关注经济与贸易;以《土著人民权利宣言》为代表的国际组织关注社会和权利。结合我国在国际政府间组织中的已有承诺,以及丰富多样的传统知识等具体国情,建议我国需要更重视传统知识保护,并采取惠益分享的立法行动,制定以《名古屋议定书》为基础的传统知识保护制度和惠益分享制度,以期达成环境、经济和社会的协调发展。     

遗传资源取得和利益分享的植物园政策探索项目与共同政策准则

１项目的背景和进展情况从１９９２年６月在巴西里约热内卢召开的联合国环境与发展大会至今,已有包括中国在内的１７５个国家和区域经济一体化组织成为《生物多样性公约》缔约方。公约关于生物多样性保护、可持续利用以及遗传资源的取得和利益分享的规定,向我们的植物园...     

What Do the Various Principles of Justice Mean Within the Concept of Benefit Sharing?

The concept of benefit sharing pertains to the act of giving something in return to the participants, communities, and the country that have participated in global health research or bioprospecting activities. One of the key concerns of benefit sharing is the ethical justifications or reasons to support the practice of the concept in global health research and bioprospecting. This article evaluates one of such ethical justifications and its meaning to benefit sharing, namely justice. We conducted a systematic review to map the various principles of justice that are linked to benefit sharing and analysed their meaning to the concept of benefit sharing. Five principles of justice (commutative, distributive, global, procedural, and compensatory) have been shown to be relevant in the nuances of benefit sharing in both global health research and bioprospecting. The review findings indicate that each of these principles of justice provides a different perspective for a different benefit sharing rationale. For example, commutative justice provides a benefit sharing rationale that is focused on fair exchange of benefits between research sponsors and communities. Distributive justice produces a benefit sharing rationale that is focused on improving the health needs of the vulnerable research communities. We have suggested that a good benefit sharing framework particularly in global health research would be more beneficial if it combines all the principles of justice in its formulation. Nonetheless, there is a need for empirical studies to examine the various principles of justice and their nuances in benefit sharing among stakeholders in global health research.     

Vicissitudes of benefit sharing of crop genetic resources: downstream and upstream

In this article, we will first give a historic overview of the concept of benefit sharing and its appearance in official agreements, particularly with respect to crop genetic resources. It will become clear that, at present, benefit sharing is primarily considered as an instrument of compensation or exchange, and thus refers to commutative justice. However, we believe that such a narrow interpretation of benefit sharing disregards, and even undermines, much of its (historical) content and potency, especially where crop genetic resources are concerned. We argue that benefit sharing should not be based merely on commutative justice but rather on a broader model that is also grounded in the concept of distributive justice. This has repercussions for the application of benefit sharing, which we try to clarify by distinguishing between downstream and upstream benefit sharing. Upstream benefit sharing is not so much inspired by compensation for actions done, or the distribution downstream of benefits developed, but by the idea of shared decision-making on the research and development of resources fundamental to human welfare. Going upstream in the research process of crop genetic resources, and determining research agendas and improving crops according to the needs of the poor, benefit sharing may well be a tool to contribute to world food security and global justice. We concretize our ideas on upstream benefit sharing by introducing a set of criteria that determine the success of consultations on agricultural research agenda setting.     

Costly signaling and cooperation.

We propose an explanation of cooperation among unrelated members of a social group in which cooperation evolves because it constitutes an honest signal of the member's quality as a mate, coalition partner or competitor, and therefore results in advantageous alliances for those signaling in this manner. Our model is framed as a multi-player public goods game that involves no repeated or assortative interactions, so that non-cooperation would be a dominant strategy if there were no signaling benefits. We show that honest signaling of underlying quality by providing a public good to group members can be evolutionarily stable, and can proliferate in a population in which it is initially rare, provided that certain plausible conditions hold, including a link between group-beneficial signaling and underlying qualities of the signaler that would be of benefit to a potential mate or alliance partner. Our model applies to a range of cooperative interactions, including unconditionally sharing individually consumable resources, participating in group raiding or defense, and punishing free-riding or other violations of social norms.     

Benefit Sharing in a Global Context: Working Towards Solutions for Implementation

Due to the state of globalized clinical research, questions have been raised as to what, if any, benefits those who contribute to research should receive. One model for compensating research participants is “benefit sharing,” and the basic premise is that, as a matter of justice, those who contribute to scientific research should share in its benefits. While incorporated into several international documents for over two decades, benefit sharing has only been sparsely implemented. This analysis begins by addressing the concept of benefit sharing, its historical development, and how it has been applied in the context of virus sharing for influenza research. The second portion of this analysis presents recommendations for ensuring benefit sharing. These recommendations are threefold: 1) an emphasis on social pressure, 2) the revision of international documents as means to ensure benefit sharing, and 3) greater collaboration between sponsor IRB and host country IRB. Because clinical research is a globalized industry, a global model will be proposed in the second that focuses on collaboration between the sponsor and host country. This collaboration is vital in order to ensure that proper forms of benefit sharing are accomplished as a matter of justice.     

Biogeography of theOxalis tuberosa alliance

TheOxalis tuberosa alliance is a group of morphologically similarOxalis species allied to the Andean tuber crop oca,O. tuberosa. Originally described by cytologists as a dozen species sharing a base chromosome number rare inOxalis (x = 8), the alliance as defined here includes additional species for which cytological information is not yet available but which are supported as members on molecular and/or morphological grounds. The alliance includes members found in the Andean region from Venezuela to northern Argentina, with one species at high elevations in Central America. They occur from the high Andean steppes (páramo and puna) to the cloud forests of middle elevations and include both restricted endemics and variable widespread species complexes. Geographical and altitudinal distributions of members of the alliance and selectedOxalis species outside the alliance were compared with a combined phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequence data of ITS and ncpGS (chloroplast-expressed glutamine synthetase). Groups within the alliance (i.e., major clades on the molecular trees) occur across widespread, overlapping regions in the Andes, with only partial ecological separation. The hypothesis that theO. tuberosa alliance may have developed in the Andes of southern Peru and northwestern Bolivia and radiated southward and, especially, northward along the Andean axis is suggested by patterns of distributions of members of the alliance and outgroups. In spite of uncertain species delimitations, it is clear that the alliance includes many endemic species and ecotypes that have very restricted distributions. As relatives of the Andean tuber cropOxalis tuberosa, the genetic diversity represented by this geographical variability should be a high priority for conservation.     

Gratitude Depends on the Relational Model of Communal Sharing

We studied the relation between benefits, perception of social relationships and gratitude. Across three studies, we provide evidence that benefits increase gratitude to the extent to which one applies a mental model of a communal relationship. In Study 1, the communal sharing relational model, and no other relational models, predicted the amount of gratitude participants felt after imagining receiving a benefit from a new acquaintance. In Study 2, participants recalled a large benefit they had received. Applying a communal sharing relational model increased feelings of gratitude for the benefit. In Study 3, we manipulated whether the participant or another person received a benefit from an unknown other. Again, we found that the extent of communal sharing perceived in the relationship with the stranger predicted gratitude. An additional finding of Study 2 was that communal sharing predicted future gratitude regarding the relational partner in a longitudinal design. To conclude, applying a communal sharing model predicts gratitude regarding concrete benefits and regarding the relational partner, presumably because one perceives the communal partner as motivated to meet one''s needs. Finally, in Study 3, we found in addition that being the recipient of a benefit without opportunity to repay directly increased communal sharing, and indirectly increased gratitude. These circumstances thus seem to favor the attribution of communal norms, leading to a communal sharing representation and in turn to gratitude. We discuss the importance of relational models as mental representations of relationships for feelings of gratitude.     

紧密型医疗联合体人力资源配置与共享关键问题分析

采用内容分析法对样本紧密型医疗联合体68名关键知情人的访谈记录进行系统分析。结合文献综述与基本资料比对,寻找其中关键环节与问题,并有针对性地提出紧密型医疗联合体人力资源规划、共享管理及其激励机制的建议。     

Alliances and reproductive success in Camargue stallions

A study of a herd of Camargue horses Equus caballus, showed that while the majority of high-ranking stallions held single-male harems, some sons of low-ranking mares, being low ranking themselves, formed alliances that could last a lifetime. The two stallions were each other's closest associate and preferential grooming partner. Alliances were based on coalitions in which either both partners confronted an intruder synchronously or the dominant of the pair tended the female(s) while the subordinate simultaneously displayed towards the rival. Alliance partners were of similar age but were not more closely related to each other than to other stallions in the herd. Long-term paternity data revealed that subordinates sired close to a quarter of the foals born into the alliance group, and significantly more foals than low-ranking stallions in the herd adopting a 'sneak'-mating strategy. The dominant appeared to benefit from the presence of his subordinate partner. Fights occurred all year round, and the subordinate stallion of each alliance pair fought outside competitors more than twice as often as the dominant. Forming short-term alliances before defending mares on their own may enhance long-term reproductive success for both partners. Other benefits to both partners include higher survivorship of their foals and increased access to proven reproductive mares. These results suggest that the relationship between alliance partners is based on mutualism, but several conditions for reciprocity seem to be fulfilled: the benefit to the dominant (assistance in fights), and the benefit to the subordinate (access to reproduction), are both costly to the other partner and delayed in time. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.     

Common Factors in Biofeedback Administered by Psychotherapists

Common factors are nonspecific therapeutic elements common across different varieties of psychotherapy. In a recent study, 68 expert psychotherapy researchers with a variety of allegiances collectively rated biofeedback as being negatively associated with many common factors (Tschacher et al. in Clin Psychol Psychother 21(1):82–96, 2014), including the therapeutic alliance. However, it seems implausible that biofeedback could benefit so many people while being incompatible with the therapeutic alliance and other common factors. The present study investigated the experiences of biofeedback clients who participated in a brief heart rate variability biofeedback protocol in order to explore the potential roles of common factors in biofeedback. The results of this study offer preliminary evidence that many common factors—including therapeutic alliance, self-efficacy expectation, mastery experiences, provision of explanatory scheme, mindfulness, and even cognitive restructuring—may play a role in biofeedback outcomes. Future research on this topic should include mediation and moderation models investigating the role of specific common factors on outcome and process studies to help determine what clinician behaviors are most helpful. Deeper investigation of common factors in biofeedback may benefit future biofeedback research and practice and address the concerns of colleagues outside of the biofeedback community who believe that biofeedback is at odds with common factors.

     

Xará: Namesakes in Southern Mozambique and Bahia (Brazil)

In Maputo (Southern Mozambique) and Bahia (Brazil), the most commonly used word to refer to namesakes is xará – a word of Amerindian origin. Although the institutions in question diverge considerably in each of these contexts, the two usages come together in that the sharing of a personal name establishes an alliance not only between the two persons involved but also among their relations. In this way, it is argued that the namesake institution is both supervening upon filiation and is a way of closing the local universe of relatedness upon itself. By superimposing a set of crossing ties, the namesake institution consolidates the entities at play and their relations. Nevertheless, much like filiation, upon which it is dependent, the namesake relation is one of co-responsibility and fusion between the partners, not of reciprocal responsibility. The latter is the product of the triangulation that such relations of alliance produce.