Impact of climatic variability on parameters used in typology and ecological quality assessment of surface waters—implications on the Water Framework Directive

In most cases the negative impacts of climate change to aquatic ecosystems cannot be mitigated by measures in the river basin management. Ignoring climate change by the Water Framework Directive may have strong implications for the typology and quality assessment systems used for water bodies. As a result of climate change, water bodies, especially those located near the type boundaries may change their type. Compared to typology characteristics, water quality parameters are even more labile and may be easily affected by climate change. The paper exemplifies that the anticipated deterioration of water quality within the time frame relevant for WFD implementation may be large enough to endanger the fulfillment of the set water quality objectives. The review of the river basin characterization every six years, as required by the WFD, might also include re-evaluation of reference conditions according to the changes observed at pristine reference sites. As a consequence, the restoration targets (i.e., the good ecological status) would also need to be evaluated periodically.     

Diatoms from Alto Adige/Südtirol (Northern Italy): characterization of assemblages and their application for biological quality assessment in the context of the Water Framework Directive

The Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC (WFD) requires the analysis of biological elements of aquatic ecosystems to assess water quality. Diatoms are the component of the periphyton most commonly used to classify lotic environments. Within the context of the WFD the concept of ‘reference conditions’ was introduced and biological quality of watercourses is expressed as Ecological Quality Ratio (EQR). This study was carried out in Alto Adige/Südtirol (Province of Bolzano-Bozen, northern Italy), belonging to the Alpine eco-region, and to the hydro-ecoregion Inner Alps. During 2006–2009, epilithic diatoms were sampled from monitoring and reference sites of seven stream types. Diatom assemblages were analysed with TWINSPAN and CCA analyses to investigate species association and distribution in relation to stream characteristics. Altitude and geology resulted to be the most important factors influencing diatom assemblage composition, and were used to describe new stream types. Indicator species analysis was used to characterize reference assemblages. The biological quality of watercourses was assessed using different diatom indices: Specific Pollution sensitivity Index (IPS), Eutrophication and Pollution Index with Diatoms (EPI-D), Trophic Index (TI). We tested also the Intercalibration Common Metric index (ICM).     

Assessment of ecological status in U.K. rivers using diatoms

1. The European Union's Water Framework Directive requires all water bodies to achieve ‘good ecological status’ by 2015 and this paper describes a rationale for defining ‘good ecological status’ based on diatoms, a significant component of the biological quality element ‘macrophyte and phytobenthos’. 2. A database of benthic diatom samples collected over the past 20 years was assembled. New sampling, specifically for this project, was undertaken during 2004 to supplement these data. In total 1051 samples were included in the database with matching environmental data. 3. ‘Reference sites’, relatively unimpacted by human activity, were selected from this database by a series of screening steps and these sites were used to develop a site‐specific reference typology. 4. Environmental variables not related to the pressure gradient were used to predict the ‘expected’ Trophic Diatom Index (TDI) values at each site. Site‐specific TDI predictions were used to generate ecological quality ratios (EQRs) ranging from ≥1, where the diatom assemblage showed no impact, to (theoretically) 0, when the diatom assemblage was indicative of major anthropogenic activities. 5. The boundary between ‘high’ and ‘good’ status was defined as the 25th percentile of EQRs of all reference sites. The boundary between ‘good’ and ‘moderate’ status was set at the point at which nutrient‐sensitive and nutrient‐tolerant taxa were present in equal relative abundance. An ecological rationale for this threshold is outlined in the paper.     

Some practical suggestions for improving engagement between researchers and policy‐makers in natural resource management

Summary Policy‐makers and managers in natural resource management (NRM) often complain that researchers are out of touch. Researchers often complain that policy‐makers and managers make poorly informed decisions. In this article, we report on a meeting between researchers, policy‐makers and managers convened to identify practical solutions to improve engagement between these camps. A necessary starting point is that every researcher and policy‐maker should understand, and tap into, the motivations and reward systems of the other when seeking engagement. For example, researchers can be motivated to engage in policy development if there is a promise of outputs that align with their reward systems such as co‐authored publications. Successful research–policy partnerships are built around personal relationships. As a researcher, you cannot therefore expect your results to inform policy by only publishing in journals. As a policy‐maker, you cannot guarantee engagement from researchers by publicly inviting comment on a document. Actively building and maintaining relationships with key individuals through discussions, meetings, workshops or field days will increase the likelihood that research outcomes will inform policy decisions. We identified secondments, sabbaticals, fellowships and ‘buddies’, an annual national NRM conference and ‘contact mapping’ (a Facebook‐type network) as forums that can catalyse new relationships between researchers and policy‐makers. We challenge every researcher, policy‐maker and manager in NRM to build one new cross‐cultural relationship each year.     

Ecological benefits assessment: A policy‐oriented alternative to regional ecological risk assessment

As the focus of many environmental and resource management decisions shifts to larger ecological units such as watersheds and ecoregions, the respective roles of ecological risk and ecological benefits must be reassessed. At larger ecological scales, risk becomes much more difficult to characterize because of the focus on the system rather than individual species. However, quantifying the monetary value of many ecological benefits is also difficult because no direct measures of their value exist, and the indirect techniques used by economists are not fully accepted in some policy‐making settings. This dilemma may be resolved by considering ecological resource/service flows, which are ecological benefits in physical rather than monetary units. By assessing the whole range of resource/service flows and the changes to each that would result from different management/control alternatives, scientists would be able to provide policy‐makers a much better basis for their decisions, and the resulting assessment would characterize changes in ecological features that are more familiar to both policy‐makers and the public.     

What are the policy priorities for sustaining ecological processes? A case study from Victoria,Australia

Summary Developments in ecological theory indicate that ecological processes have major implications for sustaining biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services. Consequently, conservation actions that focus solely on particular species, vegetation communities, habitats or sites (‘assets’) are unlikely to be effective over the long term unless the ecological processes that support them continue to function. Efforts to sustain biodiversity must embrace both ‘assets’ and ‘process‐oriented’ approaches. Existing knowledge about ecological processes, incomplete though it is, has not been adequately considered in government decision making. It is, therefore, necessary to consider how to build consideration of ecological processes into legislative and institutional frameworks, policy and planning processes, and on‐ground environmental management. Drawing on insights from interviews, a facilitated workshop, and a literature review, this paper identifies a suite of policy priorities and associated reforms which should assist in ensuring that ecological processes are given more attention in policy‐making processes. It is concluded that a multi‐pronged approach is required, because there are no ‘silver bullets’ for sustaining ecological processes.     

A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental reserves

In the context of aging European conservation institutions rewilding has emerged as a popular and scientific expression of new directions in ecology and conservation management associated with the restoration of ecosystem function through reassembly of trophic levels involving the reintroduction of large mammals. It introduces a radical new natural archetype that evokes a positive environmentalism. The Oostvaardersplassen experiment in the Netherlands demonstrates the agency of rewilding for nature development and engaging diverse publics in debates on what is natural and the future of conservation policy. If conservation is to retain its cultural and policy visibility and influence in a 21st century multi‐cultural Europe, our conservation institutions and the natures we value must adapt. In this forum I frame rewilding as an asset for institutional adaptation that is being constrained by substantive institutional and societal resistance. I argue the need for strategic investment in a European network of experimental rewilding sites. These would bring rewilding into densely populated areas, develop the science and practice of ecosystem restoration, and promote public debate on nature conservation futures. The ‘Fitness check’ of European nature conservation legislation mandated in 2014 is a case of high politics. In this situation, compromise and negotiation is inevitable and the environmental lobby needs something to advocate as well as defend. A rewilding agenda could fulfil this need.     

LCI data and data quality

Life cycle inventory (LCI) is becoming an established environmental management tool that quantifies all resource usage and waste generation associated with providing specific goods or services to society. LCIs are increasingly used by industry as well as policy makers to provide a holistic ‘macro’ overview of the environmental profile of a good or service. This information, effectively combined with relevant information obtained from other environmental management tools, is very useful in guiding strategic environmental decision making. LCIs are very data intensive. There is a risk that they imply a level of accuracy that does not exist. This is especially true today, because the availability of accurate LCI data is limited. Also, it is not easy for LCI users, decision-makers and other interested parties to differentiate between ‘good quality’ and ‘poor quality’ LCI data. Several data quality requirements for ‘good’ LCI data can be defined only in relation to the specific study in which they are used. In this paper we show how and why the use of a common LCI database for some of the more commonly used LCI data, together with increased documentation and harmonisation of the data quality features of all LCI data, is key to the further development of LCI as a useful and pragmatic environmental management tool. Initiatives already underway to make this happen are also described.     

The limnological basis for planning water quality management

The planning of water quality management needs to be organized in a rational manner, based on sound limnological and ecological principles. Criteria for management need to be clearly defined. Management plans must be formulated in the contex of activities and interests in the whole catchment area, not just those within the boundaries of water bodies. A procedure is outlined for approaching water quality management decisions.     

Current approaches to native woodland restoration in Scotland

Summary

A large number of projects have recently been initiated in Scotland aiming to restore native woodland, which are being undertaken by a variety of organisations, often in partnership, with environmental NGOs playing a leading role. The objectives, constraints and methodologies of these projects are critically reviewed, partly through a questionnaire survey. Most aim to restore ‘natural’ woodland, but the lack of appropriate reference ecosystems and uncertainty about the characteristics of the original forest hinder the development of precise objectives, and consequently the criteria for success are poorly defined. Most projects face major practical constraints, particularly browsing by herbivores and invasion by exotic species, indicating that they will require long-term management interventions. Most woodlands are isolated from other woodlands, which threatens their long-term viability, restricting colonisation by woodland organisms. Greater reference to ecological theory in practical restoration projects such as these would enable objectives to be defined with more precision, encourage a greater emphasis on ecological processes rather than community composition, and improve management plans through use of predictive tools. In particular, the integration of woodlands into habitat networks, increasing ecological connectivity between woodland fragments, is considered essential to ensure success in the long term.     

An ecological network analysis of the structure,development and sustainability of China’s natural gas supply system security

Mitigating the impacts of climate change and ensuring energy supply security has compelled China’s policy makers to maximise the use of alternative and low carbon fuels. Use and production of natural gas (an energy source with low carbon emissions) has experienced remarkable growth in China during the last decade, making China the third largest consumer and importer in the world. This study applied a powerful system-oriented ecological network analysis (ENA) technique to study China’s natural gas policies as they pertain to guarantee supply security. Several indicators based on the ENA were measured to analyse the degree of connectivity, the contributions of different compartments, resource utilisation (aggradation), development (ascendancy) and sustainability of China’s natural gas supply system. It was found that China’s source and route diversification policy have caused the natural gas supply system to exhibit considerable network complexity, demonstrating the high level of development, flexibility and diversity of China’s natural gas supply system. However, the policy also has caused a decrease in the aggradation and sustainability from the perspective of an ecological system network. The most important compartments in terms of their contribution to China’s natural gas supply system were found to be domestic natural gas production and transit compartments.     

Improving the science-policy dialogue to meet the challenges of biodiversity conservation: having conversations rather than talking at one-another

A better, more effective dialogue is needed between biodiversity science and policy to underpin the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity. Many initiatives exist to improve communication, but these largely conform to a ‘linear’ or technocratic model of communication in which scientific “facts” are transmitted directly to policy advisers to “solve problems”. While this model can help start a dialogue, it is, on its own, insufficient, as decision taking is complex, iterative and often selective in the information used. Here, we draw on the literature, interviews and a workshop with individuals working at the interface between biodiversity science and government policy development to present practical recommendations aimed at individuals, teams, organisations and funders. Building on these recommendations, we stress the need to: (a) frame research and policy jointly; (b) promote inter- and trans-disciplinary research and “multi-domain” working groups that include both scientists and policy makers from various fields and sectors; (c) put in place structures and incentive schemes that support interactive dialogue in the long-term. These are changes that are needed in light of continuing loss of biodiversity and its consequences for societal dependence on and benefits from nature.     

What works in conservation? Using expert assessment of summarised evidence to identify practices that enhance natural pest control in agriculture

This paper documents an exercise to synthesize and assess the best available scientific knowledge on the effectiveness of different farm practices at enhancing natural pest regulation in agriculture. It demonstrates a novel combination of three approaches to evidence synthesis—systematic literature search, collated synopsis and evidence assessment using an expert panel. These approaches follow a logical sequence moving from a large volume of disparate evidence to a simple, easily understandable answer for use in policy or practice. The example of natural pest regulation in agriculture was selected as a case study within two independent science-policy interface projects, one European and one British. A third funder, a private business, supported the final stage to translate the synthesized findings into a useful, simplified output for agronomists. As a whole, the case study showcases how a network of scientific knowledge holders and knowledge users can work together to improve the use of science in policy and practice. The process identified five practices with good evidence of a benefit to natural pest regulation, with the most beneficial being ‘Combine trap and repellent crops in a push–pull system’. It highlights knowledge gaps, or potential research priorities, by showing practices considered important by stakeholders for which there is not enough evidence to make an assessment of effects on natural pest regulation, including ‘Alter the timing of pesticide application.’ Finally, the process identifies several important practices where the volume of evidence of effects on natural pest regulation was too large (>300 experimental studies) to be summarised with the resources available, and for which focused systematic reviews may be the best approach. These very well studied practices include ‘Reduce tillage’ and ‘Plant more than one crop per field’.     

Governance options for science–policy interfaces on biodiversity and ecosystem services: comparing a network versus a platform approach

Science–policy-interfaces (SPIs) are expected to go beyond the linear model of scientific policy advice through creating spaces for exchange and dialogue between ‘policy’ and ‘knowledge’. Given that most environmental issues require inter- and transdisciplinary approaches, SPIs must take into account a variety of knowledge types, views and interests of scientists, policymakers and other decision makers. Moreover, acceptance and durability of SPIs depend largely on their perceived legitimacy and the credibility of their knowledge-gathering processes, providing additional challenges for their internal organisation. As the interplay between different knowledge types and decision making is far from neutral, a reflexive approach is required in the design of an SPI so that it is capable of learning from past experiences. The aim of this article is to discuss which governance arrangements could best support the development of an effective and legitimate SPI for European biodiversity politics. We analyse different options for facilitating the implementation of a ‘Network of Knowledge’ approach. This approach has been developed to improve the interface between diverse knowledge-holder communities and decision making processes for biodiversity and ecosystem services—a field where multi-scalar and multi-dimensional problems arise. In this article, we develop and discuss two stylized extreme governance models as our starting point: an `informal network model´, which almost entirely depends on the dedication of individuals, versus a more formalized `platform model´, predominantly based on the needs and interests of the organisations involved. We discuss the pros and cons of each of these models in reaching their objectives and in developing sound governing processes for a ‘Network of Knowledge’. From this discussion, we derive a recommended design for the reflexive governance of such a network in the context of the European Union and finish by discussing some more general lessons learnt.     

Site-specific chlorophyll reference conditions for lakes in Northern and Western Europe

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) requires EU Member States to assess the “ecological status” of surface waters. As a component of ecological status, many European countries are developing a classification scheme for chlorophyll concentrations as a measure of phytoplankton biomass. The chlorophyll classification must be based on the degree of divergence of a water body from an appropriate baseline or ‘reference condition’. This article describes the development of a series of regression models for predicting reference chlorophyll concentrations on a site-specific basis. For model development, a large dataset of European lakes considered to be in reference condition, 466 lakes in total, was assembled. Data were included from 12 European countries, but lakes from Northern and Western Europe dominated and made up 92% of all reference lakes. Data have been collated on chlorophyll concentration, altitude, mean depth, alkalinity, humic type, surface area and geographical region. Regression models were developed for estimating site-specific reference chlorophyll concentrations from significant predictor ‘typology’ variables. Reference chlorophyll concentrations were found to vary along a number of environmental gradients. Concentrations increased with colour and alkalinity and decreased with lake depth and altitude. Forward selection was used to identify independent explanatory variables in regression models for predicting site-specific reference chlorophyll concentrations. Depth was selected as an explanatory variable in all models. Alkalinity was included in models for low colour and humic lakes and altitude was included in models for low colour and very humic lakes. Uncertainty in the models was quite high and arises from errors in the data used to develop the models (including natural temporal and spatial variability in data) and also from additional explanatory variables not considered in the models, particularly nutrient concentrations, retention time and grazing. Despite these uncertainties, site-specific reference conditions are still recommended in preference to type-specific reference conditions, as they use the individual characteristics of a site known to influence phytoplankton biomass, rather than adopt standards set to generally represent a large population of lakes of a particular type. For this reason, site-specific reference conditions should result in reduced error in ecological status classifications, particularly for lakes close to typology boundaries.     

Assessing ecological quality of shallow lakes: Does knowledge of transparency suffice?

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) requires that all aquatic ecosystems in their member states should reach ‘good’ ecological quality by 2015. To assess ecological quality, the WFD requires the definition of reference conditions using biological, physical and chemical indicators and the assignment of each water body to one of five quality classes using these indicators. Elaborate assessment schemes using large sets of variables are now being developed. Here we address the question whether all this is really needed and what the simplest assessment approach would be for the case of shallow lakes. We explore the relationships between the quality class assigned to a lake by experts in shallow lake ecology and a rich set of biological, physical, and chemical data. Multinomial logistic regression analyses were carried out based on data from 86 shallow lakes throughout Europe that were sampled in 2000 and/or 2001. Ecological quality of shallow lakes judged by experts was strongly correlated to physical and chemical variables associated with light regime and nutrients and much less to biological variables.Our regression model showed that ecological quality of this set of shallow lakes judged by experts could be predicted quite well from water transparency expressed as Secchi depth and that other variables did not contribute to it significantly. According to the WFD, lakes should at least have a ‘good’ ecological quality. Quality judged by experts and predicted quality were similar for 78% of the lakes with respect to meeting this standard. As a cautionary note we stress that Secchi depth alone will be a less useful indicator if effects of stressors other than eutrophication (e.g. lake acidification and toxic pollution) are to be considered.     

Ecosystem, environmental quality and ecotechnology in the Taipei metropolitan region

The “self-design” capability of a natural environment is ignored in currently practiced environmental technology and urban planning professionals. Therefore, we propose an ecological engineering approach to conduct scenarios for environmental management in the metropolitan region of Taipei. Ecological energetic analysis is applied to assess the ecological economic status and the role and contribution of solid waste and water resources in the Taipei metropolitan region. The benefit of an ecological engineering approach to the environmental quality and sustainable development of the metropolitan region is evaluated using emergy synthesis. The results indicate that Taipei metropolitan region operates its activity mainly on the imported fuels and goods and services, which account for 90% of total emergy used. The treatment of waste as resources and the use of the self-design capability of the natural environment according to the ecological engineering approach can generate positive contribution and aid the environmental quality and productive potential of the ecological economic system. It is concluded that ecological sustainability should be used as a reference of environmental quality for urban development policy.     

Disentangling natural and anthropogenic drivers of changes in a shallow lake using palaeolimnology and historical archives

Shallow lakes are susceptible to catastrophic regime shifts characterised by the presence or absence or macrophytes. However, the long-term controls on macrophyte succession in shallow lakes are incompletely understood. To investigate this, we analysed multiple sediment proxies in Lake Rotcze (Eastern Poland), a small, shallow and densely macrophyte-covered lake to (1) reconstruct the ‘reference conditions’ (sensu WFD) and development of the lake in recent centuries, (2) compare historical evidence with the sedimentary record, and (3) identify the natural and anthropogenic drivers of macrophyte succession. Before the twentieth century, conditions in the lake may be referred to as ‘reference conditions’. Subsequently forest clearance in the catchment resulted in lower water transparency, but concurrent catchment drainage lowered water levels and increased macrophyte development. Since 1950 elevated nutrient supply and climatically driven increases in water levels led to the deterioration of water transparency and partial macrophyte withdrawal. At the end of the twentieth century lake-level drawdown led to low phytoplankton biomass and clear water creating a novel ecosystem where macrophytes invade the whole lake. These patterns suggest that both natural and anthropogenically induced water level fluctuations have been critical drivers of macrophyte development.     

The development of an assessment system to evaluate the ecological status of rivers in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region: introduction to the special feature

Development of an Assessment System to Evaluate the Ecological Status of Rivers in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region (ASSESS-HKH) was a 3-year research project funded by the European Union (Contract number: INCO-CT-2005-003659). This article provides an overview of this research project by summarising the objectives, the approaches and the main achievements. The main objective was to develop and apply a biological assessment system to evaluate the river’s ecological quality and to provide a scientific basis for the identification of sustainable water policy options and management strategies. The assessment tools were jointly developed by European partners, who provided their experience from recent research activities (STAR, AQEM) and Asian partners, who provided the knowledge about Asian river catchments and management necessities. The project was organised into eight work packages defining the time line for all phases, such as establishment of a stream typology and definition of reference conditions and stages of impairment classes for the rivers in the Asian countries, including a review of existing policies for water management. A specific part of the project was dedicated to increasing the overall poor knowledge of benthic invertebrates in the region and their value to the classification of the river’s ecological quality. All activities were accompanied by information events for local residents, universities and water managers. A total of 396 multi-habitat samples, from 115 rivers in five different ecoregions, were taken in two different seasons and accompanied by information on 95 parameters describing river and catchment characteristics. The benthic invertebrates in the samples were taxonomically identified based on keys generated within the project. Taxalists, with abundances per site, and field protocol information were entered into a specifically developed software tool. This dataset was the basis for developing ecological river assessment methods, called HKHscreening (Rapid Field Assessment), HKHbios (HKH Biotic Score) and HKHindex (Multimetric Index). Furthermore, a software tool (ECODAT) for using these methods was developed. The monitoring tools will serve citizens and scientists of the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region and will provide a scientific basis for policy recommendations, mitigation strategies, transnational water resource planning and sustainable ecosystem management. Additional outputs, including all sampling and laboratory protocols and project deliverables, together with the freely downloadable software, are available at the following website: http://www.assess-hkh.at.     

The quality of the aquatic environment and macrophytes of karstic watercourses

The quality of the aquatic environment and macrophytes were surveyed in the case of the remarkable karstic river Ljubljanica s. lat. (Slovenia). It consists of seven intermittent and permanent surface watercourses, connected by groundwater flows. We assessed 11 parameters describing the land use beyond the riparian zone, the structure of the riparian zone and stream channel morphology, as well as the distribution and abundance of macrophytes. The intermittent watercourses exhibited a relatively high level of naturalness, because the variable water regime prevents intensive human activity. Greater influence of the human activity on the permanent watercourses resulted in a modified riverine environment. The share of different ecological groups of macrophytes, i.e. submerged, emerged and amphibious species, reflected the water regimes of the different watercourses. A total of 62 taxa of macrophytes were identified in about 100 km of length examined. Of these, amphibious macrophytes dominated as a consequence of intermittent water regime. The relationship between environmental parameters and macrophytes, and the effects of the intermittent hydrology were investigated. All environmental parameters explained 28% of the variance in the distribution of macrophytes in watercourses, as determined by canonical correspondence analysis. Completeness of the riparian zone, bank undercutting and sediment accumulation were found to be the most influential.