The wild goats Capra aegagrus Erxleben, 1777 of the Mediterranean Sea and the Eastern Atlantic Ocean islands

• 1 Populations of wild goats that can be referred to as phenotypes of the pasang, or Bezoar goat, or wild goat Capra aegagrus Erxleben, 1777, still occur on several of the Mediterranean and Eastern Atlantic islands. Other populations became extinct not many decades ago.
• 2 Fossil evidence for the natural spread of the wild goat to any of these islands has not been found. Originating in the Near East, the region of its natural range and its earliest domestication, the species was introduced by humans onto the Mediterranean islands starting as early as the Pre‐Pottery Neolithic.
• 3 The islands of the Eastern Atlantic were colonized artificially by animals of ‘pre‐Hispanic’ origin. The principal phenotypes expressed by all these populations of goats can be matched with the characteristics of both C. a. aegagrus Erxleben, 1777 (aegagrus phenotype) and C. a. dorcas Reichenow, 1888 (dorcas phenotype).
• 4 Most of these animals currently survive on the islands without being fed by humans, and should be protected.

     

A dig into the past mitochondrial diversity of Corsican goats reveals the influence of secular herding practices

The goat (Capra hircus) is one of the earliest domesticated species ca. 10,500 years ago in the Middle-East where its wild ancestor, the bezoar (Capra aegagrus), still occurs. During the Neolithic dispersal, the domestic goat was then introduced in Europe, including the main Mediterranean islands. Islands are interesting models as they maintain traces of ancient colonization, historical exchanges or of peculiar systems of husbandry. Here, we compare the mitochondrial genetic diversity of both medieval and extant goats in the Island of Corsica that presents an original and ancient model of breeding with free-ranging animals. We amplified a fragment of the Control Region for 21 medieval and 28 current goats. Most of them belonged to the A haplogroup, the most worldwide spread and frequent today, but the C haplogroup is also detected at low frequency in the current population. Present Corsican goats appeared more similar to medieval goats than to other European goat populations. Moreover, 16 out of the 26 haplotypes observed were endemic to Corsica and the inferred demographic history suggests that the population has remained constant since the Middle Ages. Implications of these results on management and conservation of endangered Corsican goats currently decimated by a disease are addressed.     

Evidence for Introgressive Hybridization of Captive Markhor (Capra falconeri) with Domestic Goat: Cautions for Reintroduction

Markhors (Capra falconeri) are among the most endangered mammal species, and several conservation measures, including ex situ breeding, are implemented to prevent their extinction. We studied sequence diversity and differentiation of the first hypervariable segment of the mitochondrial DNA control region among C. f. heptneri and C. f. megaceros kept in four zoos in relationship to lineages of other wild and domestic goats, to assess for the first time the level of molecular distinctness and variability among those subspecies, and to check for possible introgression by related Capra taxa, such as domestic goats. Levels of differentiation between some Capra falconeri lineages and modern domestic goats were similar to levels between other wild goat species (i.e., Capra aegagrus, Capra ibex) and domestic goats. Among pure markhor lineages, paraphyly was observed for C. f. heptneri, suggesting occurrence of shared ancestral polymorphism among markhor subspecies and/or ancient or recent gene exchange between subspecies. Interestingly, 35.7% of all studied markhors from three zoos are introgressed by the domestic goat. Furthermore, despite relatively small breeding group sizes, markhors have maintained a relatively high proportion of mtDNA variation within zoo groups. In any case, the existence of markhors introgressed with domestic goat DNA in zoos should be considered when selecting markhors for ex situ breeding programs with the aim of building up a stock for later reintroduction into the wild.     

Contradiction in Conservation of Island Ecosystems: Plants, Introduced Herbivores and Avian Scavengers in the Canary Islands

Introduction of alien herbivores in sensitive island systems has resulted in massive effects on vegetation cover, floristic richness and composition of communities; some species can be even totally extirpated by grazing pressure. Goats Capra hircus and wild rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus were introduced in the Canary Islands around 500 B.C. Barbary ground squirrels Atlantoxerus getulus were introduced in 1967. Traditional extensive livestock exploitations have been maintained to the present but in the last decades the number of goats has sharply increased up to densities of 53 heads/km². Overgrazing and trampling have heavily affected eleven island endemic plant species. Some populations have been reduced to less than 10 viable individuals. On the other hand, goat carcasses and wild rabbit and squirrel populations help to maintain populations of three endangered endemic subspecies of birds. This conflict presents important economic and social ramifications: whereas public funds (mainly through European LIFE projects) are devoted to conservation of plant and avian endemic taxa, the number of goats increases rapidly thanks to subventions derived from the European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Similar conflicts are apparent in other Mediterranean Basin insular systems. It is urgently necessary to harmonize farming and conservation objectives in the Canary Islands. The impact of goats on the vegetation should be minimized through limitation of grazing in sensitive areas with high degree of endemism. Creation of ‘vulture restaurants’ may reduce the dependence of scavengers on extensive livestock exploitations. We recommend a careful study of ecological relationships within island communities where non-native species are susceptible of playing a keystonrole as occurs in the Mediterranean Basin archipelagos.     

Long-term effects of feral goats (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capra hircus</Emphasis>) on Mediterranean island communities: results from whole island manipulations

Islands exhibit disproportionally high biodiversity, however high levels of endemism and simplified food webs make their communities susceptible to invasive species. Introduced goats (Capra hircus), a generalist herbivore, are among the most harmful invasive species on islands. Concern about goat impacts on island communities have resulted in eradication programs, which have been generally implemented without comprehensive evaluation and monitoring. Unintended consequences may follow eradication, as grazing can have complex effects on island food webs. Using whole island manipulations, we evaluate the long-term, community-wide effects of goat herbivory, as well as their subsequent removal, in a system of 16 islands in the Aegean Sea (Greece) located within the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot. Goat grazing on these islands is a major conservation concern, as these support endemic plant communities that have evolved in low herbivory conditions and lack appropriate defenses. We show that goat introductions lead to significant decreases in vegetation height, percent cover, and biomass but not to immediate plant species loss, as native island endemics are replaced with widespread generalist taxa carried in by the livestock. Additionally, goats contribute to the desertification of islands by initiating a long-term soil loss cycle that continues even after goats are removed; however, remaining soil structure and chemistry are not affected. Island arthropod populations do not appear to be significantly impacted by goat introduction or removal, except for a distinct increase in the order Diptera with goat presence. This study also reaffirms the role of seabirds in providing important marine subsidies, rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, to island food webs. Plant species diversity declines following goat removal, and vegetation cover returns only partially, as further recovery is being prevented by the long-term loss of soil. This suggests that following goat removal, island communities may require additional restoration efforts, including seabird reestablishment and reintroduction of extirpated plant populations, to promote island recovery.     

Mitochondrial DNA Reveal that Domestic Goat (Capra hircus) are Genetically Affected by Two Subspecies of Bezoar (Capra aegagurus)

This article describes the complete sequences of the mitochondrial DNA displacement loop (D-loop) region and cytochrome b gene from domestic goats in Laos (Laos native) and wild goat markhor (C. falconeri). The wild goat bezoar (Capra aegagrus) has been considered to be the strongest candidate for the ancestor of the domestic goats (C. hircus); however, there is not sufficient molecular data to verify the hypothesis at present. In phylogenetic analyses, two wild goats, the markhor and the ibex (C. ibex), appeared as an outgroup, while the bezoar was located in a cluster of domestic goats. Mitochondrial haplotypes of Laos natives revealed two distinct major clusters: one was the same as the bezoar, the second, unique to Laos natives. The topology and calibrated levels of sequence divergence suggests that these clusters might represent at least two different subspecies of ancestral bezoars.     

Genetic Conservation of Insular Populations of Monterey Pine (Pinus Radiata D. Don)

Monterey pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) has only five extant native populations: three disjunct populations along the coast of California, USA and two on Mexican islands. All populations have been influenced by human activity, but the island populations in particular have been affected by introduced biota. On Guadalupe Island, the pine population has suffered drastically from overgrazing by introduced goats. We visited both island populations and described their status, took measurements, and made seed collections. We counted approximately 200 mature pine trees and virtually no seedlings on Guadalupe Island: a reduction of approximately half the population in the last 50 years. The trees are all large (mean diameter of 144 cm) –considerably larger than trees from the other four populations – and arguably near the end of their natural lifespan. The population on Cedros Island is much more robust, with thousands of trees. None sampled were as large as those on Guadalupe Island (mean diameter of 20 cm) and many groves were young and even-aged – presumably the consequence of natural regeneration after a recent fire. Tissue samples from trees on both islands did not show evidence of infection from the pitch canker pathogen, Fusarium circinatum, that has caused significant mortality in the three mainland populations. Caution is recommended in any restoration activity for the Guadalupe Island pines. Inbreeding levels could indicate the need for some planting or seeding intervention but there are also risks associated with this. Natural regeneration – after goat removal – is preferred.     

Reference genome of wild goat (capra aegagrus) and sequencing of goat breeds provide insight into genic basis of goat domestication

Background

Domestic goats (Capra hircus) have been selected to play an essential role in agricultural production systems, since being domesticated from their wild progenitor, bezoar (Capra aegagrus). A detailed understanding of the genetic consequences imparted by the domestication process remains a key goal of evolutionary genomics.

Results

We constructed the reference genome of bezoar and sequenced representative breeds of domestic goats to search for genomic changes that likely have accompanied goat domestication and breed formation. Thirteen copy number variation genes associated with coat color were identified in domestic goats, among which ASIP gene duplication contributes to the generation of light coat-color phenotype in domestic goats. Analysis of rapidly evolving genes identified genic changes underlying behavior-related traits, immune response and production-related traits.

Conclusion

Based on the comparison studies of copy number variation genes and rapidly evolving genes between wild and domestic goat, our findings and methodology shed light on the genetic mechanism of animal domestication and will facilitate future goat breeding.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1606-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Historical biogeography of the endemic Campanulaceae of Crete

Aim The clade Campanulaceae in the Cretan area is rich in endemics, with c. 50% of its species having restricted distributions. These species are analysed in the context of a larger phylogeny of the Campanulaceae. Divergence times are calculated and hypotheses of vicariance and dispersal are tested with the aim of understanding whether Cretan lineages represent remnants of an older continental flora. Location The Cretan area: Crete and the Karpathos Islands (Greece). Methods We obtained chloroplast DNA sequence data from rbcL, atpB and matK genes for 102 ingroup taxa, of which 18 are from the Cretan area, 11 are endemics, and two have disjunct, bi‐regional distributions. We analysed the data using beast , a Bayesian approach that simultaneously infers the phylogeny and divergence times. We calibrated the tree by placing a seed fossil in the phylogeny, and used published age estimates as a prior for the root. Results The phylogenetic reconstruction shows that all Campanula species fall within a well‐supported campanuloid clade; however, Campanula is highly polyphyletic. The Cretan endemics do not form a monophyletic group, and species are scattered throughout the campanuloid clade. Therefore, the Cretan taxa did not evolve following a single vicariance or dispersal event. Most Cretan lineages represent remnants of an older continental flora, with the exception of one clade that radiated in situ after island isolation, and one lineage that appears to have arrived by dispersal. Main conclusions Most Cretan species were present in the islands at the time of their isolation, and very little long‐distance dispersal to Crete and diversification within Crete has occurred since then. Endemism is probably driven by loss of species on the mainland after island isolation. Species on the islands may have been more widespread in the past, but they are now restricted to often inaccessible areas, probably as a result of human pressure.     

Quantifying and managing the loss of genetic variation in a free-ranging population of takahe through the use of pedigrees

Pedigree analysis has clear benefits for the genetic management of threatened populations through the evaluation of inbreeding, population structure and genetic diversity. The use of pedigrees is usually restricted to captive populations and few examples exist of their exclusive use in managing free-ranging populations. One such example is the management of the takahe (Porphyrio hochstetteri), a highly endangered, flightless New Zealand rail at risk from introduced mammalian predators and habitat loss. During the 1980’s and 90’s, as part of the takahe recovery programme, birds were translocated from the sole remnant population in Fiordland to four offshore islands from which introduced predators had been eradicated. The subsequent “island” population, now numbering 83 and thought to be at carrying capacity, has been closely monitored since founding. Detailed breeding records allow us to analyse the island pedigree, which is up to 7 generations deep. Gene-drop analysis indicated that 7.5% of genetic diversity has been lost over the relatively short timeframe since founding (2.1 generations on average; total genetic founders = 31) due to both a failure to equalise founder representation early on and subsequent disproportionate breeding success (founder equivalents = 12.5; founder genome equivalents = 6.6). A high prevalence of close inbreeding will have also impacted on genetic diversity. Predictions from pedigree modelling suggest that 90% genetic diversity will be maintained for only 12 years, but by introducing a low level of immigration from the Fiordland population and permitting the population to grow, 90% GD could be maintained over the next 100 years. More generally, the results demonstrate the value of maintaining pedigrees for wild populations, especially in the years immediately after a translocation event.     

Parasites and the island syndrome: the colonization of the western Mediterranean islands by Heligmosomoides polygyrus (Dujardin, 1845)

Aim Populations of free‐living vertebrates on islands frequently differ from their mainland counterparts by a series of changes in morphometric, life‐history, behavioural, physiological and genetic traits, collectively referred to as the ‘island syndrome’. It is not known, however, whether the ‘island syndrome’ also affects parasitic organisms. The present study establishes the colonization pattern of the Mediterranean islands by the nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus, a direct and specific parasite of rodent hosts of the Apodemus genus, and evaluates the effects of island colonization by this species on two components of the island syndrome: the loss of genetic diversity and the enlargement of the ecological niche. Location Heligmosomoides polygyrus was sampled on seven western Mediterranean islands ? Corsica, Crete, Elba, Majorca, Minorca, Sardinia and Sicily ? as well as in 20 continental locations covering the Mediterranean basin. Methods The mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (690 base pairs) was sequenced in 166 adult H. polygyrus individuals sampled in the 27 continental and island locations. Phylogenetic reconstructions in distance, parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian posterior probabilities were carried out on the whole cytochrome b gene data set. The levels of nucleotide, haplotype and genetic divergence (Kimura two‐parameter distance estimator) diversities were estimated in each island population and in the various continental lineages. Results Phylogenetic reconstructions show that the mainland origins of H. polygyrus were continental Spain for the Balearic Islands (Majorca, Minorca), northern Italy for the Tyrrhenian Islands (Corsica, Sardinia, Elba), southern Italy for Sicily, and the Balkan region for Crete. A comparison of island H. polygyrus populations with their mainland source populations revealed two characteristic components of the island syndrome in this parasite. First, island H. polygyrus populations display a significant loss of genetic diversity, which is related (r² = 0.73) to the distance separating the island from the mainland source region. Second, H. polygyrus exhibits a niche enlargement following insularization. Indeed, H. polygyrus in Corsica is present in both A. sylvaticus and Mus musculus domesticus, while mainland H. polygyrus populations are present exclusively in Apodemus hosts. Main conclusions Our results show that H. polygyrus has undergone a loss of genetic diversity and a niche (host) enlargement following colonization of the western Mediterranean islands. To our knowledge, this study provides the first evidence for components of the ‘island syndrome’ in a parasitic nematode species.     

Experimental studies of adaptive differentiation in Bahamian Anolis lizards

Populations of the lizards Anolis carolinensis and A. sagrei were experimentally introduced onto small islands in the Bahamas. Less than 15 years after introduction, we investigated whether the populations had diverged and, if so, whether differentiation was related to island vegetational characteristics or propagule size. No effect of founding population size was evident, but differentiation of A. sagrei appears to have been adaptive, a direct relationship existed between how vegetationally different an experimental island was from the source island and how much the experimental population on that island had diverged morphologically. Populations of A. carolinensis had also diverged, but were too few for quantitative comparisons. A parallel exists between the divergence of experimental populations of A. sagrei and the adaptive radiation of Anolis lizards in the Greater Antilles; in both cases, relative hindlimb length and perch diameter are strongly correlated. This differentiation could have resulted from genetic change or environmentally-driven phenotypic plasticity. Laboratory studies on A. sagrei from a population in Florida indicate that hindlimb length exhibits adaptive phenotypic plasticity. Further studies are required to determine if the observed differences among the experimental populations are the result of such plasticity. Regardless of whether the differences result from plasticity, genetic change, or both, the observation that anole populations differentiate rapidly and adaptively when exposed to novel environmental conditions has important implications for understanding the adaptive radiation of Caribbean anoles.     

Invasive rats and seabirds after 2,000 years of an unwanted coexistence on Mediterranean islands

In the Mediterranean, the survival of endemic long-lived seabirds despite the long-standing introduction of one of the most damaging alien predator, the ship rat (Rattus rattus), on most islands constitutes an amazing conservation paradox. A database gathering information on approximately 300 Western Mediterranean islands was analyzed through generalized linear models to identify the factors likely to influence ship rat presence and to account for how ship rat presence and island characteristics may have driven the presence and abundance of seabirds. Our review showed that few Mediterranean islands remain rat-free. At the regional scale, rat presence was only a limiting factor in the abundance of the smallest seabird, the storm petrel (Hydrobates pelagicus), while the distribution and abundance of the three shearwaters were more influenced by island characteristics. We hypothesized that the long-term persistence of these seabirds may have been facilitated by the various biogeographical contexts of Mediterranean islands, likely to provide intra-island refuges.     

Genetic diversity and investigation of polledness in divergent goat populations using 52 088 SNPs

The recent availability of a genome‐wide SNP array for the goat genome dramatically increases the power to investigate aspects of genetic diversity and to conduct genome‐wide association studies in this important domestic species. We collected and analysed genotypes from 52 088 SNPs in Boer, Cashmere and Rangeland goats that had both polled and horned individuals. Principal components analysis revealed a clear genetic division between animals for each population, and model‐based clustering successfully detected evidence of admixture that matched aspects of their recorded history. For example, shared co‐ancestry was detected, suggesting Boer goats have been introgressed into the Rangeland population. Further, allele frequency data successfully tracked the altered genetic profile that has taken place after 40 years of breeding Australian Cashmere goats using the Rangeland animals as the founding population. Genome‐wide association mapping of the POLL locus revealed a strong signal on goat chromosome 1. The 769‐kb critical interval contained the polled intersex syndrome locus, confirming the genetic basis in non‐European animals is the same as identified previously in Saanen goats. Interestingly, analysis of the haplotypes carried by a small set of sex‐reversed animals, known to be associated with polledness, revealed some animals carried the wild‐type chromosome associated with the presence of horns. This suggests a more complex basis for the relationship between polledness and the intersex condition than initially thought while validating the application of the goat SNP50 BeadChip for fine‐mapping traits in goat.     

A review of mammal eradications on Mediterranean islands

1. Impacts of alien invasive species on island communities and ecosystems may be even more detrimental than on the mainland. Therefore, since the 1950s, hundreds of restoration projects have been implemented worldwide, with the aim of controlling or eradicating alien species from islands. To date, no review has been focused on eradication on Mediterranean islands. To fill the gap, I reviewed the available information concerning mammal eradications so far carried out on Mediterranean islands, examining the details of several aspects of project implementation and monitoring.
2. I obtained data for 139 attempted eradications on 107 Mediterranean islands in eight countries, with Greece, Italy, and Spain accounting for the highest number. Eradication projects targeted 13 mammal species. The black rat Rattus rattus was the target of over 75% of the known attempted eradications in the Mediterranean Basin; other species targeted were feral goat Capra hircus, house mouse Mus musculus, European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus, and domestic cat Felis catus. The most widely adopted technique was poisoning (77% of all eradications), followed by trapping (15%) and hunting (4%). However, techniques were largely target-specific.
3. The average failure rate was about 11%. However, this percentage varied according to the specific mammalian order, and eradications of Carnivora failed more often than those of other mammals. Among rodents, house mouse eradication attained a very high failure rate (75%). Reinvasion occurred after 15% of successful eradications.
4. A better understanding of the motivations of animal rights activists may improve the chance of success when eradicating charismatic or domesticated species. Furthermore, it is crucial to collect data and case studies about reinvasions, in order to strengthen biosecurity programmes following eradication. As in other parts of the world, the next frontier in alien mammal management on Mediterranean islands concerns the eradication of invasive species from inhabited islands.

     

The origins of cultivation of Cicer arietinum L. and Vicia faba L.: early finds from Tell el-Kerkh, north-west Syria, late 10th millennium b.p.

Cicer arietinum L. (chickpea) and Vicia faba L. (faba bean, broad bean or horse bean) were found in late 10th millennium b.p. levels at Tell el-Kerkh, in north-west Syria. They are the earliest well preserved archaeobotanical finds of these two species. Over a hundred C. arietinum specimens were recovered which showed a wide morphological diversity varying from C. arietinum ssp. reticulatum to the more rounded shape as seen in cultivated varieties. For Vicia faba, 29 complete and 119 half seeds, as well as many fragments were recovered. Tell el-Kerkh is one of the few early PPNB Near Eastern sites situated in the Mediterranean zone which could have been the habitat of the unknown wild progenitor of the faba bean. The wild progenitor of chickpea, C. a. reticulatum, is found in a limited area of southeast Turkey, at a considerable distance from Tell el-Kerkh. These finds suggest that the use and domestication of these pulses is perhaps earlier than was previously supposed.     

Control of invasive species for the conservation of biodiversity in Mediterranean islands. The LIFE PonDerat project in the Pontine Archipelago,Italy

We present the EU LIFE PonDerat project, which is aimed at restoring the natural ecosystems of the Pontine Archipelago, a group of islands located off the western coast of Italy. The spread of invasive species is a major environmental threat on these islands, which are rich in rare habitats and endemic species and are important sites for the conservation of Mediterranean biodiversity. The project focuses on the conservation of species and habitats that are protected by EU laws but are currently threatened by introduced plants and animals. The main targets of the control measures are black rats, feral goats, mouflons and invasive plants of the genus Carpobrotus. Conservation measures focus on the shearwaters Puffinus yelkouan and Calonectris diomedea, which are endemic to the Mediterranean and are listed in Annex I of the European Bird Directive. Conservation measures also focus on island habitats of great biogeographical value, which are listed in Annex I of the European Habitats Directive and are seriously threatened by introduced herbivores and by invasive plants. The main outcome expected from this project is that the restoration of ecosystem functions will enhance the breeding success and population size of shearwaters and lead to the recovery of target habitats.     

Prehistoric Introduction of Domestic Pigs onto the Okinawa Islands: Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence

Ancient DNAs of Sus scrofa specimens excavated from archaeological sites on the Okinawa islands were examined to clarify the genetic relationships among prehistoric Sus scrofa, modern wild boars and domestic pigs inhabiting the Ryukyu archipelago, the Japanese islands, and the Asian continent. We extracted remain DNA from 161 bone specimens excavated from 12 archaeological sites on the Okinawa islands and successfully amplified mitochondrial DNA control region fragments from 33 of 161 specimens. Pairwise difference between prehistoric and modern S. scrofa nucleotide sequences showed that haplotypes of the East Asian domestic pig lineage were found from archaeological specimens together with Ryukyu wild boars native to the Ryukyu archipelago. Phylogenetic analysis of 14 ancient sequences (11 haplotypes; 574 bp) indicated that S. scrofa specimens from two Yayoi-Heian sites (Kitahara and Ara shellmiddens) and two Recent Times sites (Wakuta Kiln and Kiyuna sites) are grouped with modern East Asian domestic pigs. Sus scrofa specimens from Shimizu shellmidden (Yayoi-Heian Period) were very closely related to modern Sus scrofa riukiuanus but had a unique nucleotide insertion, indicating that the population is genetically distinct from the lineage of modern Ryukyu wild boars. This genetic evidence suggests that domestic pigs from the Asian continent were introduced to the Okinawa islands in the early Yayoi-Heian period (1700–2000 BP), or earlier.     

Epidemic Development and Virulence in 1995–1998 of Puccinia coronata, a Potential Biocontrol Agent of Wild Oats on San Clemente Island

The biology of islands differs from that of large land masses in having less complex ecosystems. Introduced exotic weeds are often a major threat to fragile island ecosystems because of their expansion into habitats previously occupied by endemic species. San Clemente Island, 120 km off the California coastline, is an example of this process in which numerous exotic weed species have been introduced and some are endangering the native flora. Crown rust of oats caused by Puccinia coronata f.sp. avenae was investigated as a potential biocontrol agent against two wild oat species, Avena barbata and Avena fatua, introduced on San Clemente Island. Epidemiology and virulence of this rust were studied. The island was surveyed from 1995 to 1998 for occurrence of P. coronata on wild oats. Wild oats were found sprouting in the northern part of the island shortly after autumn rainfall and subsequently covered the main grasslands of the island. The rust also appeared first on the northern part of the island and progressively spread south. However, disease severities in the south were considerably lower than those in the north. Diverse virulence types, although related to Californian and Mexican forms, were detected among the isolates. The potential use of P. coronata as an augmentative biocontrol agent for wild oat species on San Clemente Island is discussed.     

Geographic Tools for Eradication Programs of Insular Non-native Mammals

Non-native mammals are major drivers of ecosystem change and biodiversity loss; this is especially apparent on islands. However, techniques exist to remove non-native mammals, providing a powerful conservation tool. Conservation practitioners are now targeting larger islands for restoration. Leveraging existing and developing new techniques and technologies will prove critical to successful eradications on large islands. Using the removal of introduced goats (Capra hircus) from Santiago Island, Galápagos as a case study, we present a suite of Geographic Information System (GIS) tools that aid island conservation actions. GIS tools were incorporated into the three phases of the eradication campaign: planning, hunting, and monitoring. Further, these tools were adopted for three eradication techniques: ground-based hunting, aerial hunting by helicopter, and Judas goats. These geographic approaches provide a foundation for statistical, spatial, and economic analyses that should increase the capability and efficiency of removal campaigns. Given limited conservation funds and the dire status of many insular species, efficiently removing non-native mammals from islands is of paramount global conservation importance.