Dual pheromone dispenser for combined control of codling moth Cydia pomonella L. and oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lep., Tortricidae) in pears

Codling moth (CM) and oriental fruit moth (OFM) are very important orchard pests worldwide, and particularly in Victoria, Australia, where both species damage pome fruit. Individually CM and OFM have been controlled successfully by pheromone‐mediated mating disruption, but treatment of pome fruit with full registered rates of two individual hand‐applied dispensers for CM and OFM could be uneconomical for growers. Field trials conducted over three seasons in plots sprayed with insecticides consistently demonstrated that dual Isomate C/OFM TT dispensers, designed to disrupt both CM and OFM, were as effective as Isomate CTT and Isomate OFM Rosso dispensers applied individually in pears for control of CM and OFM respectively. The dual‐ and individual‐species dispensers reduced moth catches and fruit damage to a similar degree. The results suggest that combined control of CM and OFM in pears by applying dual Isomate C/OFM TT dispensers at the full‐recommended rate of 500 dispensers per hectare will be more economical than use of individual species dispensers, because the price and application cost of dual dispenser is about half that for individual dispensers.     

Sprayable microencapsulated sex pheromone formulation for mating disruption of oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in Australian peach and pear orchards

Areawide mating disruption treatments have been effective in controlling infestation of oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in Australian pome and stone fruit orchards. Although successful, the areawide mating disruption program has been an expensive approach by using hand-applied Isomate dispensers. Sprayable microencapsulated (MEC) pheromone formulations that can be applied with standard spray equipment could substantially reduce the cost of application. Field trials conducted during two consecutive seasons (2002-2004) demonstrated that monthly applications of MEC-OFM phase V (3M Canada, London, Ontario, Canada) at a rate of 125 ml/ha (37.1 g [AI]/ha) in replicated 2-ha blocks of both peaches and pears reduced oriental fruit moth shoot tip and fruit damage as effectively as a single application of Isomate OFM Rosso hand-applied dispensers (500 dispensers per ha) and as or more effectively than standard broad-spectrum insecticide sprays. Fruit protection was achieved despite high oriental fruit moth population densities in both crops as measured by moth catches in terpinyl acetate food and pheromone traps. Similar numbers of oriental fruit moths were captured among all treatments in food traps but captures of males in pheromone traps were disrupted (96-99%) in pheromone-treated blocks relative to controls. The results of this study suggest that microencapsulated formulations of pheromone could be effectively used in areawide mating disruption programs for oriental fruit moth in Australia as a cost-saving alternative to reservoir-style dispensers requiring labor-intensive hand application.     

Potential of high‐density pheromone‐releasing microtraps for control of codling moth Cydia pomonella and obliquebanded leafroller Choristoneura rosaceana

Recent large‐cage studies with codling moth Cydia pomonella (L.) reveal that the removal of moths from an apple orchard using pheromone‐releasing traps is more effective at reducing capture in a central monitoring trap than is a mating disruption protocol without kill/capture. The present study uses open orchard 0.2‐ha plots comparing a high‐density trapping scenario with mating disruption to confirm those results. Two tortricid moth pests of tree fruit are studied: codling moth and obliquebanded leafroller Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris). Codling moth treatments include Isomate CM FLEX (ShinEtsu Ltd, Japan), nonsticky traps baited with Trécé CM lures (Trécé, Inc., Adair, Oklahoma), and sticky traps baited with Trécé CM lures, all at equal application rates of 500 dispensers ha^?1, as well as a no pheromone control. These microtraps are of a novel design, small and easy to apply, and potentially inexpensive to produce. Mating disruption using Isomate CM FLEX and nonsticky traps reduces codling moth capture in standard monitoring traps by 58% and 71%, respectively. The attract‐and‐remove treatment with sticky traps reduces capture by 92%. Obliquebanded leafroller treatments include Isomate OBLR/PLR Plus and Pherocon IIB microtraps baited with Trécé OBLR lures, both applied at 500 dispensers ha^?1, as well as a no pheromone control. Mating disruption reduces capture in monitoring traps by 69%. The attract‐and‐remove treatment reduces capture by 85%. Both studies suggest that an attract‐and‐remove approach has the potential to provide superior control of moth populations compared with that achieved by mating disruption operating by competitive attraction.     

Mating disruption barriers in pome fruit for improved control of oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta Busck (Lep., Tortricidae) in stone fruit under mating disruption

Oriental fruit moth (OFM) Grapholita molesta Busck (Lep., Tortricidae) is a very important pest in commercial orchards in Victoria, Australia. Pheromone‐mediated mating disruption (MD) applied in stone fruit orchards successfully controlled OFM populations for many years, but damage to shoot tips and fruit at the edge of peach blocks located adjacent to pear blocks under insecticide treatments has become problematic. To improve protection of stone fruit against edge damage and outbreaks of OFM, all orchards were treated with sex pheromone dispensers for MD on an area‐wide basis. Area‐wide MD treatment, including all pome and stone fruit orchards in a discrete area, successfully controlled edge infestations of OFM, but was expensive. To reduce the cost of OFM control, sex pheromone dispensers for MD were applied as barrier treatments to 54–60 m of neighbouring pears adjacent to peaches under MD. Detailed monitoring of the OFM population, shoot tip and fruit damage assessments indicated that application of MD barriers on pears during two consecutive seasons provided sufficient control of OFM on peaches. This MD barrier treatment was able to reduce the number of OFM caught in all experimental peach blocks, with damage to shoot tips and fruit giving similar results to MD treatment of the whole neighbouring pear block. Extending the MD treatment area for 54–60 m into the neighbouring pear block significantly reduced the edge damage in MD‐treated peaches in the first season and almost eliminated OFM damage in the second season.     

Evaluation of mating disruption for control of lightbrown apple moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in citrus

Three large-scale mating disruption (MD) trials were conducted from 2001 to 2004 in an organic citrus orchard in inland southeastern Australia to evaluate the effectiveness of the MD dispenser Isomate LBAM Plus in controlling lightbrown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), in citrus. At the application rate of 364-728 dispensers per ha, the dispensers reduced pheromone trapping of E. postvittana to almost undetectable levels for approximately 6 mo in the treated area. During this period, most sentinel females in the treated area failed to mate. Infestation by E. postvittana in the treated area was reduced by >50%. If distributed in citrus orchards in late winter (August), the dispensers can be expected to remain effective until next February in southeastern Australia, covering the period when most fruit scarring caused by its larvae occurs.     

Comparison of a sprayable pheromone formulation and two hand-applied pheromone dispensers foruse in the integrated control of oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

The efficacy of integrated programs using a sprayable pheromone formulation or one of two hand-applied pheromone dispensers, and a conventional oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) control program, was compared using 4-5-ha blocks of peach orchard at three Niagara Peninsula farms during 2000-2002. In the integrated programs, chlorpyrifos and mating disruption with 3M Sprayable Pheromone, Isomate OFM Rosso, or Rak 5 hand-applied dispensers were used to control first-generation larvae, and mating disruption alone was used to control second- and third-generation larvae. In the conventional program, chlorpyrifos was used to control first-generation larvae, and pyrethroid insecticides were used to control larvae of the later generations. All programs were effective at maintaining fruit infestation by G. molesta below the industry tolerance level of 1%. An integrated program using sprayable pheromone required the use of more supplementary insecticide applications to control second- and third-generation larvae than a program using hand-applied dispensers. The elimination of insecticide sprays from integrated program blocks did not result in an increase in damage by plant bugs, Lygus spp. (Hemiptera: Miridae) or by the plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).     

Cocoon-spinning larvae of Oriental fruit moth and Indianmeal moth do not produce aggregation pheromone

1 Mature larvae of the Oriental fruit moth (OFM) Grapholita molesta (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and the Indianmeal moth (IMM) Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) leave their food source in search of suitable pupation sites in which to spin cocoons. These sites are typically well-concealed cracks and crevices within the environment. Such cocooning behaviour is also observed in larvae of the codling moth (CM) Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), which aggregate prior to pupation in response to a pheromone blend produced by cocoon-spinning conspecific larvae.
2 In laboratory experiments, we tested whether cocoon-spinning OFM and IMM larvae produce aggregation pheromones and whether CM larvae are cross-attracted to closely-related OFM larvae.
3 Fifth-instar OFM and IMM larvae were not attracted to, or arrested by, cocoon-spinning conspecifics. Moreover, fifth-instar CM larvae were not cross-attracted to either cocoon-spinning OFM or IMM larvae.
4 Analyses of volatiles released from cocoon-spinning OFM and IMM larvae revealed that both OFM and IMM lack components that are present in the aggregation pheromone of CM larvae. This information may help explain why CM larvae are not cross-attracted to cocooning OFM or IMM larvae.     

Volatile compounds from young peach shoots attract males of oriental fruit moth in the field

Abstract

The oriental fruit moth (OFM) is one of the most serious pests of commercial fruit orchards worldwide. Newly planted peach trees in particular, can be very attractive for mated OFM females for oviposition. Samples of airborne host plant volatiles from intact young peach shoot tips and old leaves of the same potted plants were collected and analyzed with a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer. Chemicals present in young shoot tips, but not in old leaves, were used for field trials. Moth capture by traps with the synthetic chemicals was compared to that of the standard terpinyl acetate (TA) food trap. The TA food trap caught OFM males and mated females, but tested synthetic chemicals trapped only OFM males. We observed that the mixture of (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate: (E)-β-ocimene: (E)-β-farnesene in proportion 1:2:2 attracted OFM males. Further, 1 mg of (E)-β-ocimene, and that of (E)-β-farnesene also attracted OFM males.     

Small plot trials documenting effective mating disruption of oriental fruit moth by using high densities of wax-drop pheromone dispensers

In 2004 field experiments, we compared the effectiveness of various deployment densities of 0.1-ml paraffin wax drops containing 5% pheromone versus Isomate M-Rosso "rope" dispensers for disruption of Grapholita molesta (Busck). Treatments were evaluated in 0.05-ha (12-tree) plots of 'Delicious' apples receiving regular maintenance according to growers' standards, but not sprayed with insecticides. The application densities of 0.1-ml wax drops were 3 per tree (820/ha), 10 per tree (2,700/ha), 30 per tree (8,200/ha), and 100 per tree (27,300/ha). Wax drops were compared with 3-ml dispensers of pheromone-containing paraffin wax or Isomate M-Rosso ropes at 1.8 per tree (500/ha) and untreated control plots. Treatments were applied before the start of each of three moth generations. Orientational disruption, as measured by inhibition of moth captures in pheromone-baited delta traps, was greatest in plots that received 100 drops per tree (99.2%) and 30 drops per tree (99.4%). More than 55% of tethered, virgin females were mated in control plots after one night of deployment. However, no mating was recorded at the two highest application densities of wax drops where orientational disruption of traps exceeded 99%. Mating ranged from 7 to 20% among the other treatments, including Isomate rope dispensers. G. molesta males were observed closely approaching pheromone dispensers in plots containing ropes and wax drops, documenting competitive attraction between synthetic pheromone sources and feral females. The majority of observed G. molesta males approached within 60 cm of wax drops or pheromone ropes and departed within 20 s by flying upwind. Thirty wax drops per tree yielded higher mating disruption of G. molesta than did Isomate M-Rosso dispensers deployed at the recommended rate of 500/ha (1.8 per tree). Measurement of release rates confirmed behavioral data indicating that paraffin wax dispensers would need to be applied once per G. molesta generation in Michigan. Paraffin wax drops are a promising technology for moth mating disruption. They are cheaper and easier to produce, require less total pheromone per annual application, and produce better mating disruption at appropriate deployment densities compared with Isomate M-Rosso dispensers under high G. molesta population densities. The cost-effectiveness of this approach will require an appropriate mechanized applicator for wax drops.     

Sex pheromone traps for monitoring the codling moth: effect of dispenser type, field aging of dispenser, pheromone dose and type of trap on male captures

The effects of dispenser type, dispenser aging in the field, pheromone dose in the dispenser and trap type on trapping efficiency of codling moth,Cydia pomonella (L.), males were investigated in Israel. An Israeli-manufactured rubber septum was significantly better than the CM Pherocon cap in attracting males to a Pherocon 1C cap trap or an IPS trap. The effect of aging of the dispenser in the field on trapping efficiency was significant in CM Pherocon caps and the Israeli septa. Captures in traps were negatively correlated with aging of septa. The effect of aging of dispensers was more marked during summer than during spring. The fairly rapid loss of attractancy indicates that the lures should be replaced after 2 weeks at the most. The release rate of the pheromone from the dispensers was measured in a flow system. The emission from the Israeli septa and Pherocon caps decreased sharply after 2 weeks and then was almost constant, which explains the lower attractancy of aged septa. However, there was a marked difference in the release profiles of the pheromone from the two types of dispensers, which may explain the different performance of the two dispensers. Within the range of 0.1 to 100 μg pheromone per dispenser, male response increased positively with the pheromone dose. Pheromone loadings of 100 or 1000 μg per dispenser did not differ significantly in their attractiveness for males. A load of 5000 μg per dispenser was significantly less attractive to males than was 100 or 1000 μg per dispenser. The non-sticky IPS trap was significantly better in capturing codling moth males than was the sticky, commonly used Pherocon 1C trap, provided it was baited with the Israeli dispenser. The two traps were equally effective when baited with the CM Pherocon caps. The possibility of using the non-sticky, nonsaturating and easy-to-handle IPS traps for monitoring codling moth is of great importance. Contribution from the Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 50-250, Israel. No 3702-E, 1992 series.     

Control of Cydia pomonella L. and Cydia molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera Tortricidae) in pome-fruit orchards with Ecodian sex pheromone dispensers

A mating disruption approach using high densities of pheromone dispensers, has been recently proposed for codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), and oriental fruit moth, Cydia molesta (Busck.), (Lepidoptera Tortricidae), control. Ecodian Star dispensers, made of low-cost biodegradable material and easy to apply, were formulated with 10 mg of codlemone (E8,E10-12OH) and 10 mg of grapamone (Z8-12OH) and placed at a rate of 1,400-2,000 dispensers/ha. The pheromone release rates from new and field aged dispensers were evaluated by hexane extraction of the residual attractant (indirectly) and gas-chromatographic analysis. The release rate of field-aged dispensers decreased over time with a good linearity; they released a significant amount of synthetic sex pheromones over the entire season. Dispensers elicited close-range approaches of codling moth males in wind tunnel irrespective of their age. Field trials carried out from 2003 to 2004 confirmed the efficacy of Ecodian Star dispensers for codling moth and oriental fruit moth control, regardless the size of the treated area. Our results demonstrate that Ecodian dispensers achieved a good level of activity and longevity over the season. The potential of this strategy for the control of the moths is discussed.     

梨小食心虫生物防治研究进展

梨小食心虫Grapholita molesta(Busck)是世界性分布的果树主要害虫之一,可危害多种果树。多年来,过度依赖化学农药防治梨小食心虫效果并不理想,且杀伤天敌、污染环境、导致农药残留。利用自然天敌防治梨小食心虫高效、无毒、无污染,符合当前社会对环保的要求。本文结合前人工作,从病原微生物、寄生性天敌、捕食性天敌、性信息素、化学信息物质等方面,综述了梨小食心虫生物防治的研究进展,并对其应用前景进行了展望。     

梨小食心虫性信息素田间应用技术研究

梨小食心虫Grapholitha molesta(Busck)是梨园、桃园重要的果树害虫。本文比较研究了梨小食心虫性信息素在梨园、桃园悬挂不同高度、设置不同密度对梨小食心虫雄性成虫诱捕效果的影响,结果表明:在梨树树冠范围内,梨小食心虫性信息素最佳设置高度为2 m;在桃树树冠范围内,梨小食心虫性信息素最佳设置高度为1.5 m;同时,田间诱捕效果与性信息素设置密度密切相关,梨园中,每0.067 hm2设置密度为6¹0个诱芯时,对梨小食心虫的诱捕效果影响不大,而桃园中每0.067 hm2设置8个诱芯时,有最好的诱集效果。本研究可为梨小食心虫性信息素田间应用提供指导。     

Evaluation of extended-season mating disruption of the Oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lep., Tortricidae) in apples

Abstract:  Oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lep., Tortricidae) has recently become a key pest of apples throughout the eastern USA. Pheromone-mediated mating disruption of Oriental fruit moth was successfully used in North Carolina apple orchards in the past few years. However, low levels of late-season fruit damage occurred in some orchards treated in late May with hand-applied pheromone dispensers because of inadequate dispenser longevity. To investigate alternative pheromone application schedules for extended mating disruption control, the following pheromone treatments were compared with conventional insecticides in Henderson County (NC) in 2002: late May application of hand-applied dispensers; late June application of hand-applied dispensers; late May application of hand-applied dispensers supplemented with a late August application of sprayable pheromone dispensers; late May application of hand-applied dispensers which have a longer activity period; and conventional insecticides as a control. All treatments were sprayed with an insecticide at petal fall in late April for thinning and for control of the first generation Oriental fruit moth adults. Pheromone trap catches were significantly reduced in all mating disruption blocks compared with conventional insecticide blocks. Among pheromone treatments, the highest trap captures were recorded in the delayed hand-applied dispenser treatment in June before treatment. However, the mean percentage fruit damage did not vary with timing of application of hand-applied dispensers and the type of pheromone dispenser used. Clearly, the combination of each mating disruption treatment with insecticide application against first generation Oriental fruit moth was as effective as the conventional insecticide treatment under moderate population pressure.     

Resistance to the pink potato aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae, in two accessions of Lycopersicon hirsutum f. glabratum

An integrated programme of pheromone-mediated mating disruption using Isomate-C®, post-harvest removal of fruit, and trapping overwintering larvae with cardboard tree bands, was used to control codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in four commercial organic apple orchards in Cawston, British Columbia during 1989–1992. One application of 1000 dispensers ^{– 1} on May 1 delivered estimated seasonal totals of 16.6, 16.5 and 19.9 g of E,E-8,10-dodecadien-1-ol [=codlemone] ^{– 1}in 1990, 1991 and 1992, respectively, at median rates of 8.4, 8.3, and 13.3 mg · < ha^–1 · ha^–1 during dusk flight periods of first brood and 5.3, 4.7 and 4.6 mg · ^{– 1}· ha^–1 in second brood, respectively. Over this 3-year period damage from codling moth at harvest ranged from 0.08 to 2.4%, and averaged 60.7% in these four organic orchards, while damage in five conventional orchards receiving sprays of azinphosmethyl ranged from 0.02 to 1.85%, and averaged 0.5%. Damage in an experimental orchard that was banded only, ranged from 43.5 to 56.7%, and averaged 48.9%. Between 1990 and 1992 cumulative male catches in Pherocon 1-CP wing traps baited with 10 mg of codlemone declined by 52% and densities of overwintering codling moth larvae declined an average of 49.5% in all organic orchards. Overwintering populations in the banded experimental orchard showed an increase of 57.7% during this study period. We conclude that an integrated programme of pheromone-mediated mating disruption, post-harvest fruit removal and tree banding, controls codling moth effectively enough to make organic apple production viable in British Columbia.     

Efficacy and mode of action of female‐equivalent dispensers of pheromone for mating disruption of codling moth

1 We evaluated the efficacy and mode of action of commercially available female‐equivalent dispensers of pheromone for mating disruption of codling moth Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera Tortricidae). 2 Scentry fibres, but not Hercon flakes, were consistently as or more effective than Isomate C Plus dispensers when applied by hand at 50 dispensers per tree. 3 Individual Scentry fibres were slightly more attractive to male codling moth than Hercon flakes. 4 Efficacy of aerially applied Scentry fibres was equivalent to that of Isomate dispensers in disrupting male codling moth in 4‐ha commercial apple plots. 5 Initial deposition and retention of aerially applied fibres were inefficient with approximately 44% formulation loss at application, poor rainfastness and a gradual loss of dispensers from tree canopies after application. 6 Male codling moths were captured in traps baited with lures containing 0.1 mg of pheromone and mated with tethered virgin females that were surrounded by eight fibres placed 30 cm away or 16 fibres placed 45 cm away in untreated plots and plots treated with a background of 50 Isomate dispensers per hectare. 7 A plausible explanation for mating disruption of codling moth by female‐equivalent dispensers is competitive attraction without associated habituation and thus improving the effectiveness of these technologies will depend on maximizing the attractiveness of individual dispensers as well as the application density of dispensers per area of crop.     

Distribution of the oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta Busck (Lep., Tortricidae) infestation on newly planted peaches before and during 2 years of mating disruption

Abstract:  Oriental fruit moth (OFM) Grapholita molesta Busck (Lep., Tortricidae) is one of the most important pests of commercial stone fruit orchards in the Goulburn-Murray Valley region of Victoria, Australia. OFM populations have been successfully controlled by the use of the mating disruption (MD) technique for many years, but damage to shoot tips and fruit has now started to increase. The most severe damage under MD is found at the edge of peach blocks, adjacent to the pear blocks under insecticide treatment. In 1997–98, OFM infestation levels were examined in a newly planted peach block surrounded by older peaches, pears, apples and pasture. The infestation distribution was followed up for four consecutive years. No treatments were used against OFM for the first 2 years in the newly planted peaches, but in years 3 and 4 the whole block was treated with MD. At the end of year 2, shoot tip damage was randomly distributed throughout the newly planted peach block with no 'edge effect'. After MD was applied in year 3, the damage was confined to the edges of the block adjacent to insecticide-sprayed apples and pears. No 'edge effect' was detected along the border with an older peach block treated with MD or on the border with pasture. Extending the MD treated area for 25–30 m into the neighbouring apples and pears in year 4 reduced the 'edge effect'.     

Control of the Oriental Fruit Moth, Grapholita molesta, Using Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Laboratory and Fruit Bin Assays

The oriental fruit moth (OFM), Grapholita molesta (Busck), which is among the most important insect pests of peaches and nectarines, has developed resistance to a wide range of insecticides. We investigated the ability of the entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) Steinernema carpocapsae (Weiser), S. feltiae (Filipjev), S. riobrave (Cabanillas et al.), and Heterorhabditis marelatus (Liu and Berry) to control OFM under laboratory and fruit bin conditions. At a dosage of 10 infective juveniles (IJ)/cm² in the laboratory, S. carpocapsae caused 63%, S. feltiae 87.8%, S. riobrave 75.6%, and H. marelatus 67.1% OFM mortality. All four nematode species caused significant OFM larval mortality in comparison to the nontreated controls. Steinernema feltiae was used for the bin assays due to the higher OFM mortality it caused than the other tested EPN species and to its ability to find OFM under cryptic environments. Diapausing cocooned OFM larvae in miniature fruit bins were susceptible to IJ of S. feltiae in infested corner supports and cardboard strips. Treatment of bins with suspensions of 10 or 25 S. feltiae IJ/ml water with wetting agent (Silwet L77) resulted in 33.3 to 59% and 77.7 to 81.6% OFM mortality in corner supports and cardboard strips, respectively. This paper presents new information on the use of EPN, specifically S. feltiae, as nonchemical means of OFM control.     

Integrated control of oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in peach orchards using insecticide and mating disruption

The efficacy of an integrated and a conventional oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), control program was compared using 4-ha blocks of peach at three Niagara Peninsula farms during 1997-1999. In the integrated program, chlorpyrifos was used to control first-generation larvae and mating disruption using Isomate M100 pheromone dispensers was used to control the second and third generations. In the conventional program, chlorpyrifos was used to control first-generation larvae and pyrethroids were used to control larvae of the later generations. The average release rate of pheromone was 23.7-26.4 mg/ha/h over a period of 86-91 d. The pheromone treatment reduced the capture of moths in pheromone-baited traps on average by 98%, suggesting a high level of disruption. The integrated program provided control of oriental fruit moth similar to the control provided by a conventional program. The mean percentage of peach shoots infested with first- and second-generation larvae, and fruit infested with third-generation larvae was not significantly greater in the integrated-program blocks during the 3-yr study. The elimination of insecticide sprays from the integrated-program blocks did not result in an increase in damage caused by plant bugs. The incidence of damage caused by other pests was negligible in both the integrated and conventional blocks.     

Pheromone release rate determines whether sexual communication of Oriental fruit moth is disrupted competitively vs. non‐competitively

Communicational disruption mechanisms for Oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), were determined using a suite of mathematical tools and graphical operations that enable differentiation between competitive attraction and non‐competitive mechanisms of disruption. Research was conducted in 20 field cages, each covering 12 mature apple trees. Commercial monitoring lures releasing Oriental fruit moth pheromone at a rate of 0.04 μg h^?1 and distributed at densities of 0, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 17 per cage were used to evaluate the effect of low‐releasing dispensers on the disruption of sexual communication. Graphical analyses revealed that near‐female‐equivalent pheromone dispensers disrupted Oriental fruit moth competitively. Commercial mating disruption dispensers releasing Oriental fruit moth pheromone at 60 μg h^?1 and deployed at 0, 4, 6, 10, 15, 20, and 30 per cage were used to evaluate the effect of high‐releasing dispensers on the disruption of sexual communication. Oriental fruit moth disruption shifted to a non‐competitive mechanism for high‐releasing dispensers. This is the first time such a shift in disruption mechanism has been demonstrated against a background of otherwise identical experimental conditions. Near‐female‐equivalent pheromone dispensers were also used to quantify the additive effect of an attract‐and‐remove control strategy compared with competitive mating disruption. We report a five‐fold reduction in Oriental fruit moth captures under attract‐and‐remove compared to mating disruption using near‐female‐equivalent dispensers. Surprisingly, release of female Oriental fruit moths into these large‐cage disruption studies had no measurable impact on male trapping.