物种与科属的数量关系——以中国鸟类为例

许多研究表明，物种与高级分类阶元在数量上密切相关，这种关系在地区物种数量预测中具有很高的应用价值。应用中国不同地理类型(保护区、行政区和动物地理亚区)的鸟类物种名录，研究物种与科属的数量相关关系和频次分布规律，结果表明：(1)物种与高级分类阶元在数量上有着极显著相关关系(P<0.01)，其中物种—属的相关关系要显著于物种—科，且在对数、乘幂、指数和线数4种模型中，用乘幂模型拟合最好；(2)物种在科属间的频次分布具有规律性(P<0.05)，随着物种数/科属的增加，频次迅速减少，在4种模型中，乘幂模型拟合最好，属的规律性较科显著。根据以上结果，物种与科属间的数量强相关关系与物种数量在科属间有规律的频次分布有关。     

中国哺乳类物种与科属的数量关系

利用中国三种地理类型(自然保护区、行政省和动物地理亚区)的哺乳类名录,分析物种与高等分类阶元(属、科)的数量关系,旨在为利用高等分类阶元替代物种预测生物多样性提供理论依据,研究结果显示:1)不同地理类型中物种一属一科在数量上具有相似的增长趋势,且物种一属、物种一科的数量关系呈极显著相关(P＜0.01).利用模型对哺乳类物种与科和属的数量关系模拟.乘幂模型拟合效果最佳.2)物种在属间、科间的频次均呈非均匀分布,对结果进行拟合发现对数、乘幂、指数和线性四种模型中,乘幂模型对哺乳类物种与科和属的数量关系模拟效果最佳.综合以上内容认为,哺乳类物种与高级分类阶元在数量和频次分布上存在规律,且可用模型进行很好拟合,这种关系适用于生物多样性预测、评价和保护.     

广东省自然保护区尺度陆生脊椎动物物种多样性与高级分类单元的关系

利用广东省自然保护区陆生脊椎动物名录,分析保护区尺度上物种与高级分类单元在数量上的关系.结果表明,属、科在数量上都随着物种数的增加而增加,且具有相似的增长趋势.物种-属、物种-科在数量上呈现出极显著相关关系(P<0.01,r>0.8),在乘幂模型、线性模型、指数模型和对数模型拟合中,乘幂模型拟合最好.结果显示了,保护区...     

青藏高原草地双子叶植物叶片的气孔特征研究

利用光学显微镜对青藏高原29种草地双子叶植物叶片的气孔形态与数量特征进行观察及差异显著性分析,为揭示青藏高原草地双子叶植物对高原环境的适应机制及探索气孔作为辅助分类的依据奠定理论基础。结果表明:(1)青藏高原草地双子叶植物大多数种类在叶片上、下表皮均分布有气孔,气孔随机排列,气孔器多为无规则型。(2)气孔长度(SL)较小,上、下表皮的气孔平均长度分别为26.20μm与25.56μm,且气孔密度(SD)与气孔指数(SI)相对较大。(3)不同科、属、种间叶片上、下表皮的SL、SD、SI差异均极显著。(4)叶片上、下表皮的6个气孔数量特征之间具有显著相关关系。(5)上表皮的SL、SD与不同科、属、种间显著相关,下表皮除SI与物种间相关不显著外,其他指标与科、属、种间显著相关。研究认为,青藏高原草地双子叶植物独特的气孔形态与数量特征是对高寒极端环境长期适应的结果,且气孔数量特征对植物辅助分类具有重要价值。     

中国吸虱昆虫区系及物种多样性研究

吸虱是寄生于真兽类哺乳动物体表的专性吸血寄生虫,广布于世界各地.我国已知吸虱11科22属96种.分别占世界已知科、属、种的64.71%、45.83%、17.14%.从分类阶元、特有物种、动物地理区划和宿主动物4个方面分析了我国吸虱的物种多样性.中国特有种吸虱27种.中国横跨古北和东洋两界,吸虱分布以东洋界和占北界共有属级分布型最丰富,有13属29种;其次为东洋界特有分布型,有6属41种,种类丰富;古北界特有分布型仅2属,但种类丰富,有24种.吸虱在7个地理区分布,以华中区、华南区、西南区3个地理区的吸虱物种多样性较高,其它4个区的物种多样性较低.我国吸虱物种多样性较为丰富,吸虱的物种分布受宿主动物地域分布的影响较大.吸虱的宿主动物种类丰富,但宿主动物体表吸虱的物种多样性低,一科(属)阶元的吸虱其宿主多为相对应的一科(亚科)动物阶元,反映了吸虱宿主特异性较高的事实,是吸虱与其宿主协同进化的生态学表现.     

云南省吸虱昆虫区系及物种多样性

吸虱是寄生于真兽类哺乳动物体表的专性吸血寄生虫,广布于世界各地。云南省已知吸虱昆虫9科13属44种,分别占中国已知吸虱科、属、种的81.82%,59.09%,45.83%。文章参考大量相关文献,从分类阶元、特有物种、动物地理区划和宿主动物4个方面分析云南省吸虱的物种多样性。云南省吸虱特有种有13种,占云南省已知吸虱种类的29.55%,27种为东洋种,15种为古北和东洋两界兼有种,广布种9种。吸虱在5个地理小区的分布,以横断山中部和横断山南部2个地理小区的吸虱物种多样性较高,其它3个区的物种多样性较低。相对于全国而言,云南省吸虱物种多样性较高,吸虱的宿主动物种类丰富。但蚤、恙螨和革螨等其它体表寄生虫相比较,兽类宿主动物体表吸虱的物种多样性明显低于其它体表寄生虫,1科(属)阶元的吸虱其宿主多为相对一致的1个科(属)动物阶元,反映了吸虱宿主特异性较高的事实,吸虱昆虫与其对应的宿主动物已经形成了比较稳定的"一对一"的寄生关系,这是吸虱昆虫与其宿主动物协同进化的生态学表现。     

山西平陆黄河湿地植物分类学多样性

传统的物种多样性通常使用物种数量指标α和β等多样性指数进行测度,由于其对取样和样本大小有依赖关系且极其敏感,因此取样方法的不同会对多样性的结果产生显著影响。分类学多样性方法基于分类学系统关系测量物种多样性,弥补了传统方法的不足,同时面对各种变量和不受控制的取样具有稳健性,同时也考虑了集合的分类学均匀度。不仅能反映植物群落多样性,还能间接反映环境与扰动间的关系,用于识别生态系统或生境是否处于退化阶段。为了探究平陆黄河湿地的物种多样性,检验分类学多样性方法在植物生态学方面的应用,选取了16个样地进行植物调查,并结合历史资料整理了种子植物名录,结果表明平陆黄河湿地共有植物368种,隶属于36目67科213属。含种最多的科为菊科和禾本科,分别为54种和45种。应用平均分类学差异指数(Δ+)和分类学差异变异指数(Λ+)研究了各样地的植物物种多样性:Δ+和Λ+的理论平均值分别为74.24和480;位于三门峡大坝上游和下游的样地和不同群落类型的分类学多样性均没有显著差异(P0.05)。受人类干扰较大的车村和鳖干平均分类学差异指数值显著较低,Δ+分别为62.28和67.41,位于95%的置信漏斗外;而水分条件较好且人为干扰较少的南沟渡口和三湾湖平均分类学差异指数值最高为分别81.30和79.94。车村的分类差异变异指数值最高为814.44,其物种在不同分类阶元分布最不均一,涧北的分类差异变异指数值最低为423.31,其物种分布相对较均一。传统的多样性方法难以全面的反映某个区域的物种组成、分布和多样性,此外分类学多样性的高低与物种数量的多少没有一定的相关关系,Δ+与S、Λ+与S的相关关系分别为-0.257和-0.187(P0.05)。耕作、生态旅游、日常活动等人为干扰因素可能是造成平陆黄河湿地分类学多样性降低及物种在不同分类等级间分布不均匀的主要原因。     

基因序列在蚤蝇科分子系统学研究中的应用

概述基因序列在双翅目蚤蝇科分子系统学研究中的应用。对蚤蝇科已测序的分类单元和基因序列进行了总结,12S rDNA和16S rDNA应用最广泛,涉及蚤蝇科17个属;获得基因序列最多的是Melaloncha属。蚤蝇科分子系统学研究内容为高级阶元系统发育分析、物种鉴定和隐存种发现。今后蚤蝇科分子系统学研究应增加蚤蝇标本的种类与数量,选择标准化基因。     

新疆蚜虫的物种多样性研究

从分类阶元、寄主植物和寄生部位等角度系统研究了新疆蚜虫类昆虫的物种多样性,共发现蚜虫5科57属183种,寄主植物55科192属.无论在属级水平还是在种级水平,蚜科均有绝对优势,分别占新疆所有属数和种数的64.90%和65.60%.结果表明,新疆蚜虫的地理分布具有明显的纬度和经度梯度性,这与天山山脉在新疆的地理位置和走向是紧密相关的.另外,受植被分布和人类活动的影响,新疆蚜虫还具有明显的岛屿状分布特征.     

海南橡胶林植物多样性特征

为探讨人工林物种多样性维持机制及人为干扰后人工林群落的多样性恢复机制,作者依据自然林的核心理论建立了一个1 ha的橡胶(Hevea brasiliensis)林固定样地,通过研究近自然管理后样地内植物物种组成与分布来探讨近自然管理后橡胶林生物多样性的特征。结果表明:近自然管理后橡胶林群落物种多样性较高,1 ha样地内共有植物69科155属183种。在面积为4,000 m2、3,000 m2和2,000 m2时分别包含了样地内大约90%的种、属和科;逻辑斯蒂模型拟合拟合种–面积曲线效果较好(R2=0.997),证明了1 ha取样尺度可以满足橡胶林群落物种多样性研究的需要。多度–面积曲线和丰富度–面积曲线与随机分布模型有明显的差异,表明橡胶林群落内个体数及物种分布呈非随机性。(4)对数级数模型和对数正态模型拟合橡胶林群落的种–多度分布都不理想,相比而言后者拟合效果稍好。     

迁地保护条件下两种沙冬青的开花物候比较研究

沙冬青属(Ammopiptanthus)植物是我国西北荒漠区唯一的常绿阔叶灌木。作者对吐鲁番沙漠植物园迁地保护的两种沙冬青的开花物候进行了详细的比较观察,旨在探讨它们在同一生境条件下开花特性的异同点及其影响因素。主要结果如下:(1)两种植物在开花频率、花序开放顺序、开花振幅曲线及单花寿命等开花参数上相似,但在始花时间、单株花期、花序的开花数及开放持续时间与频率分布、开花振幅等参数上明显不同;(2)在个体和群体水平上,蒙古沙冬青(A.mongolicus)始花时间均比新疆沙冬青(A.nanus)早,蒙古沙冬青开花全过程为20–21d,新疆沙冬青为13–14d;(3)蒙古沙冬青花序的开花数比新疆沙冬青多、开放持续时间长,两者在开花数(F=17.51,P<0.01)和持续时间(F=14.08,P<0.01)上均存在显著差异;(4)花序上的花大多从近基部向两端开放,开花振幅呈单峰曲线,但新疆沙冬青的开花振幅较高;(5)花序开放持续期的频率分布明显不同,新疆沙冬青较蒙古沙冬青更为集中,但两者的单花寿命稳定,均在7d左右;(6)花序上每天的开花数与其座果数呈正相关(蒙古沙冬青,r=0.885,P<0.05;新疆沙冬青,r=0.827,P<0.01),但其开花数和座果数与始花时间存在不同程度的相关关系,这些特点可能与开花对传粉者的吸引以及物种本身的遗传特性有关。对上述观察结果及其影响因素的分析表明,两种植物在开花参数上所表现出的一致性可能是受系统发育限制的,而彼此间的差异可能与其进化历史及所处的环境异质性有关,是在与环境的长期适应过程中分别形成的一些可遗传的变异;而不同年份间两种沙冬青在花序的开花数及开放持续时间上表现出的差异可能与环境温度的变化有关。这些结果对于探讨该属植物的繁殖生物学特性及其保护对策具有重要意义。     

Natural taxonomic categories of angiosperms obey Benford's law,but artificial ones do not

Benford's phenomenological law gives the expected frequencies of the first significant digit (i.e., the leftmost non-zero digit) of any given series of numbers. According to this law, the frequency of 1 is higher than that of 2; this in turn appears more often than 3, and so on decreasing until 9. Similarly, Benford's law can also be applied to the first two significant digits (i.e., from 10 to 99), and so on. We applied Benford's law to sets of taxonomic data sets consisting of the number of taxa included in taxa of higher rank. We chose the angiosperms (Magnoliophyta) as a model case, because they are very diverse, are monophyletic, and a consensus on taxonomy of orders and families has been achieved (classification APG III), and we used as sets of data the number of species, genera, families, and orders. Only the number of species per family and per order are Benford's sets, but the remaining data sets do not obey Benford. Furthermore, in the case of the analysis of the first two significant digits of species per genus, the deviation from Benford was very large, but they fit to a power law. Given that the conformity to Benford's law is fulfilled for ‘natural' taxonomic categories of angiosperms (i.e., species and family), but not for those with more artificiality (genus), we speculate, ‘the more natural, the more Benford'.     

Bryozoans are returning home: recolonization of freshwater ecosystems inferred from phylogenetic relationships

Bryozoans are aquatic invertebrates that inhabit all types of aquatic ecosystems. They are small animals that form large colonies by asexual budding. Colonies can reach the size of several tens of centimeters, while individual units within a colony are the size of a few millimeters. Each individual within a colony works as a separate zooid and is genetically identical to each other individual within the same colony. Most freshwater species of bryozoans belong to the Phylactolaemata class, while several species that tolerate brackish water belong to the Gymnolaemata class. Tissue samples for this study were collected in the rivers of Adriatic and Danube basin and in the wetland areas in the continental part of Croatia (Europe). Freshwater and brackish taxons of bryozoans were genetically analyzed for the purpose of creating phylogenetic relationships between freshwater and brackish taxons of the Phylactolaemata and Gymnolaemata classes and determining the role of brackish species in colonizing freshwater and marine ecosystems. Phylogenetic relationships inferred on the genes for 18S rRNA, 28S rRNA, COI, and ITS2 region confirmed Phylactolaemata bryozoans as radix bryozoan group. Phylogenetic analysis proved Phylactolaemata bryozoan's close relations with taxons from Phoronida phylum as well as the separation of the Lophopodidae family from other families within the Plumatellida genus. Comparative analysis of existing knowledge about the phylogeny of bryozoans and the expansion of known evolutionary hypotheses is proposed with the model of settlement of marine and freshwater ecosystems by the bryozoans group during their evolutionary past. In this case study, brackish bryozoan taxons represent a link for this ecological phylogenetic hypothesis. Comparison of brackish bryozoan species Lophopus crystallinus and Conopeum seurati confirmed a dual colonization of freshwater ecosystems throughout evolution of this group of animals.     

Molecular phylogeny and biogeographic diversification of Parthenocissus (Vitaceae) disjunct between Asia and North America

? Premise of the study: Parthenocissus is a genus of the grape family Vitaceae and has a disjunct distribution in Asia and North America with members in both tropical and temperate regions. The monophyly of Parthenocissus has not yet been tested, and the species relationships and the evolution of its intercontinental disjunction have not been investigated with extensive sampling and molecular phylogenetic methods. ? Methods: Plastid (trnL-F, rps16, and atpB-rbcL) and nuclear GAI1 sequences of 56 accessions representing all 12 Parthenocissus species were analyzed with parsimony, likelihood, and Bayesian inference. Divergence times of disjunct lineages were estimated with relaxed Bayesian dating. Evolution of the leaflet number was assessed by tracing this character onto Bayesian trees using the Trace Character Over Trees option in the program Mesquite. ? Key results: Parthenocissus is monophyletic and sister to the newly described segregate genus Yua. Two major clades within Parthenocissus are recognizable corresponding to their distribution in Asia and North America. The disjunction between the two continents is estimated to be at 21.64 (95% higher posterior densities 10.23-34.89) million years ago. ? Conclusions: Parthenocissus is likely to have derived from the Eocene boreotropical element. Its current Asian-North American disjunction is dated to the early Miocene, congruent with fossil and paleoclimatic evidence. The tropical species is nested within the temperate clade and is inferred to have dispersed from the adjacent temperate regions. Parthenocissus and Yua are best treated as distinct genera. Leaflet number in this genus has a complex history and cannot be used as a character for infrageneric classification.     

Patterns of coexistence: ectoparasites on small mammals in northern Fennoscandia

The total aestival ectoparasitic burden of six small mammal species ( Sorex araneus, Clethrionomys glareolus, C. rutilus, C. rufocanus, Microtus agrestis , and M. oeconomus ) was investigated in terms of frequency distribution, frequency of occurrence, species diversity and joint occurrences. The mammals were collected in northern Fennoscandia during peak density years. The frequency distribution of the ectoparasites was best described as negative binomial on C. glareolus, M. agrestis , and M. oeconomus but not so on S. araneus, C. rutilus and C. rufocanus. The distribution did not fit the Poisson distribution in any species. The percentage of S. araneus that had ectoparasites was 49%, and of the microtidae species, 73-96% had ectoparasites. The median number of ectoparasites on the vole species was between 2 and 9 specimens of 1 or 2 species. There was a significant, positive correlation between the number of ectoparasitic species and the total number of individuals on all host species. Pairs of ectoparasitic species occurring together more or less often than expected by chance were found on all host species. However, the pairs rarely repeated themselves on the same host species under different environmental conditions, or on other host species under similar circumstances. Differences in total infestation between reproductive categories and sexes were observed in M. agrestis but not in S. araneus and C. glareolus.     

The Divergence of Echolocation Frequency in Horseshoe Bats: Moth Hearing,Body Size or Habitat?

A phylogenetic approach was used to test three hypotheses regarding the evolution of diversity in the echolocation frequencies used by horseshoe bats (family Rhinolophidae, genus Rhinolophus): 1) Allotonic Frequency Hypothesis (high frequency echolocation in the Rhinolophidae resulted from coevolution with moth hearing); 2) Allometry Hypothesis (echolocation frequency is negatively scaled with body size and evolutionary changes in echolocation frequencies are correlated with changes in body size in the Rhinolophidae); and 3) Foraging Habitat Hypothesis (evolution of echolocation frequency is associated with changes in habitat type). Both discrete and continuous character sets were used for ancestral state reconstructions and for investigating patterns of evolution between frequency and body size, and frequency and habitat type. Contrary to the prediction of the Allotonic Frequency Hypothesis, echolocation frequency in the Rhinolophidae did not increase over time, which would be expected if moth hearing and bat echolocation frequency coevolved. The number of extant species that exhibit calls within moth hearing ranges was not significantly different from the number of species that echolocate outside of moth hearing range. There was also no correlation between changes in frequency and changes in habitat type as predicted by the Foraging Habitat Hypothesis. Instead, the evolution of echolocation frequency within the Rhinolophidae was correlated with changes in body size as predicted by the Allometry Hypothesis.     

Reactivity to bacterial peptidoglycans in a phagocytosis system. 1. The range of immunological specificity of Staphylococcus aureus peptidoglycan

The antigenic features of S. aureus peptidoglycan (PG) were studied in the reaction of stimulation of oxygen-dependent neutrophil metabolism, mediated by the IgG opsonins of normal human serum. The study was carried out at different taxonomic levels: the species (S. aureus), the genus (Staphylococcus), the family (Micrococcaceae), as well as in relation to remote taxons (organisms belonging to the families Streptococcaceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Neisseriaceae, to the genus Corynebacterium). All S. aureus strains were identical with respect to the specificity of their PG, essentially differing from other bacteria in this regard. After the removal of antibodies to different PG the effectiveness of PG opsonization decreased by 10.4-44.7%. Such decrease was most pronounced in experiments with the PG of streptococci (S. pyogenes, S. faecalis, S. salivarius) and Micrococcus luteus.     

Assessing biodiversity with species accumulation curves; inventories of small reptiles by pit‐trapping in Western Australia

Abstract We examined 11 non‐linear regression models to determine which of them best fitted curvilinear species accumulation curves based on pit‐trapping data for reptiles in a range of heterogeneous and homogenous sites in mesic, semi‐arid and arid regions of Western Australia. A well‐defined plateau in a species accumulation curve is required for any of the models accurately to estimate species richness. Two different measures of effort (pit‐trapping days and number of individuals caught) were used to determine if the measure of effort influenced the choice of the best model(s). We used species accumulation curves to predict species richness, determined the trapping effort required to catch a nominated percentage (e.g. 95%) of the predicted number of species in an area, and examined the relationship between species accumulation curves with diversity and rarity. Species richness, diversity and the proportion of rare species in a community influenced the shape of species accumulation curves. The Beta‐P model provided the best overall fit (highest r²) for heterogeneous and homogeneous sites. For heterogeneous sites, Hill, Rational, Clench, Exponential and Weibull models were the next best. For homogeneous habitats, Hill, Weibull and Chapman–Richards were the next best models. There was very little difference between Beta‐P and Hill models in fitting the data to accumulation curves, although the Hill model generally over‐estimated species richness. Most models worked equally well for both measures of trapping effort. Because the number of individuals caught was influenced by both pit‐trapping effort and the abundance of individuals, both measures of effort must be considered if species accumulation curves are to be used as a planning tool. Trapping effort to catch a nominated percentage of the total predicted species in homogeneous and heterogeneous habitats varied among sites, but even for only 75% of the predicted number of species it was generally much higher than the typical effort currently being used for terrestrial vertebrate fauna surveys in Australia. It was not possible to provide a general indication of the effort required to predict species richness for a site, or to capture a nominated proportion of species at a site, because species accumulation curves are heavily influenced by the characteristics of particular sites.     

Regional variation in the historical components of global avian species richness

Aim Using a global data base of the distribution of extant bird species, we examine the evidence for spatial variation in the evolutionary origins of contemporary avian diversity. In particular, we assess the possible role of the timing of mountain uplift in promoting diversification in different regions. Location Global. Methods We mapped the distribution of avian richness at four taxonomic levels on an equal‐area 1° grid. We examined the relationships between richness at successive taxonomic levels (e.g. species richness vs. genus richness). We mapped the residuals from linear regressions of these relationships to identify areas that are exceptional in the number of lower taxa relative to the number of higher taxa. We use generalized least squares models to test the influence of elevation range and temperature on lower‐taxon richness relative to higher‐taxon richness. Results Peaks of species richness in the Neotropics were congruent with patterns of generic richness, whilst peaks in Australia and the Himalayas were congruent with patterns of both genus and family richness. Hotspots in the Afrotropics did not reflect higher‐taxon patterns. Regional differences in the relationship between richness at successive taxonomic levels revealed variation in patterns of taxon co‐occurrence. Species and genus co‐occurrence was positively associated with elevational range across much of the world. Taxon occurrence in the Neotropics was associated with a positive interaction between elevational range and temperature. Conclusions These results demonstrate that contemporary patterns of richness show different associations with higher‐taxon richness in different regions, which implies that the timing of historical effects on these contemporary patterns varies across regions. We suggest that this is due to dispersal limitation and phylogenetic constraints on physiological tolerance limits promoting diversification. We speculate that diversification rates respond to long‐term changes in the Earth's topography, and that the role of tropical mountain ranges is implicated as a correlate of contemporary diversity, and a source of diversification across avian evolutionary history.