中国外来入侵生物的空间分布格局及其影响因素

不同地理区域影响生物分布格局的因子不同,对外来入侵物种也是如此。在区域尺度上分析外来入侵生物的空间分布格局及其影响因子对预测生物入侵的影响及入侵种的控制管理具有重要意义。本研究应用中国外来入侵物种数据库、自然环境数据库和社会人文环境数据库,分析了我国外来入侵动植物的空间格局;并运用主成分分析（PCA）和典范对应分析（CCA）探讨了自然环境和人类活动等因素对外来入侵动植物分布格局的影响;同时研究了外来入侵物种多样性与本地物种多样性之间的关系。结果表明,我国现有外来入侵动物138种、入侵植物384种,其数量和密度都呈现出由东南沿海向西北内陆减少的趋势,且入侵动物和入侵植物空间格局基本一致;降水（MAP）是决定我国外来入侵动植物分布格局的主要自然环境因子,国民生产总值（GDP）是主要社会经济影响因子。在全国尺度上,外来入侵物种多样性与本地物种多样性之间呈显著的正相关关系,但地域间存在较大差异。不同区域外来入侵物种与本土物种多样性的相关关系表现出不同,与研究尺度有密切关系。     

北京东灵山土壤动物多样性海拔格局的尺度推绎规律

识别群落内部各类群多样性格局的复杂性是生态学家面临的挑战,而尺度推绎规律是揭示复杂生态结构的有效途径之一。本研究利用多重分形的方法探索了不同海拔土壤动物多样性格局的尺度推绎规律,对比分析了凋落物层和土壤层之间多重分形谱的差异。结果表明: 与之前对植物群落的分析结果相似,土壤动物多样性尺度推绎规律同样具有幂律特征,如丰富度、Shannon多样性指数和Simpson多样性的倒数。凋落物层和土壤层中不同相对多度土壤动物的丰富度也具有幂律尺度推绎规律。凋落物层和土壤层中土壤动物多样性格局都具有多重分形特征,但凋落物层中多样性的分形结构比土壤层更均匀,且两层间优势类群与稀有类群的尺度推绎特征在多重分形谱上不同格局。幂律尺度推绎规律对于有着较高丰富度与多度的土壤动物同样存在,从而有助于揭示地下生物多样性的空间分布机制。     

桂西北喀斯特常绿落叶阔叶混交林物种多样性分布格局的尺度效应

物种多样性的空间分布格局及其与尺度的关系研究对于了解群落物种多样性形成机制具有重要意义。为了探讨喀斯特地区物种多样性空间分布格局的尺度效应,以喀斯特常绿落叶阔叶混交林25 hm~2样地的(胸径DBH≥1)木本植物为研究对象,分析了6个空间尺度(5 m×5 m,10 m×10 m,20 m×20 m,50 m×50 m,100 m×100 m,250 m×250 m)上的多度、物种丰富度、Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数以及Pielou均匀度指数的变化规律。结果表明:物种多样性指数的空间分布均表现出较高的空间异质性;物种多样性指数的方差随取样尺度增加呈现单峰分布特征,并且在100 m×100 m尺度上达到最大值;物种多样性指数的变异系数随尺度的增加呈线性下降趋势,其中,Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数以及Pielou均匀度指数均在5 m×5 m至20 m×20 m尺度上明显减小;在大于50 m×50 m的尺度上,物种丰富度与多度的正相关性不显著(P0.05)。喀斯特常绿落叶阔叶混交林物种多样性的空间分布格局与不同空间尺度密切相关,深入解析物种多样性随空间尺度的变化模式,需要在类似的森林生态系统做更多的研究。     

空间尺度对地形异质性-物种多样性关系的影响:粒度和幅度

空间尺度是影响我们理解生态学格局和过程的关键因素。目前已有多种关于物种多样性分布格局形成机制的假说且研究者未达成共识,原因之一是空间尺度对物种多样性分布格局的环境影响因子的解释力和相对重要性有重要影响。地形异质性是物种多样性分布格局的重要影响因素。本文综述了在地形异质性-物种多样性关系的研究中,不同空间粒度和幅度对研究结果的影响,以及可能的原因。尽管已认识到地形异质性-物种多样性关系的空间尺度效应,但粒度和幅度的具体影响仍未有统一结论。当前物种多样性分布格局研究未能覆盖较完整的尺度变化梯度。未来对地形异质性-物种多样性关系的研究需要同时考虑幅度和粒度的影响。建议结合可靠的模型和统计分析方法开展多尺度格局比较分析,以进一步阐明研究尺度对地形异质性-物种多样性关系的影响以及地形异质性起主导作用的空间尺度。     

天山北部拟南芥生存群落物种多样性的空间格局

在对新疆天山北部浅山地带拟南芥（Arabidopsis thaliana）生存分布调查的基础上,研究了13个拟南芥样地（生存群落）的综合物种多样性格局特征及环境因子对其空间格局的影响。结果表明,各样地物种多样性指数差异明显。天山西支婆罗科努山的伊犁地区多样性最大,塔尔巴哈台山额敏地区其次,天山中部8个样地多样性较低且变幅较大,阿尔泰山阿勒泰地区多样性指数处于中等水平,总体上,13个拟南芥样地物种多样性空间格局异质性明显;各样地拟南芥及其邻近种种类及数量不一,以天山中部最多;物种多样性空间格局与降水量变化关系拟合较好,随降水量增加而增大;物种多样性指数的DCCA排序表明,除降水量外,坡向、有效钾及电导率等微环境因子也是影响物种多样性空间格局的重要因素。     

中国典型森林生态系统乔木层群落物种多样性的空间分布格局及其影响因素

物种多样性地理分布格局及其成因是生物地理学和宏观生态学研究的核心问题之一,基于中国13个典型森林生态系统乔木层群落植物的调查数据,分析物种多样性随经纬度的变化规律,探讨物种多样性空间分布格局的影响因素。结果表明:(1) 13个典型森林生态系统的4个物种多样性指数均随经纬度上升而下降,其中物种丰富度变化更为显著,而Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数和Pielou指数随经度上升变化不显著;(2)相关性分析结果显示,物种多样性指数与植物特性、能量和水分因子的单因素相关关系并不一致。其中,物种丰富度、Shannon-Wiener指数和Simpson指数与年均温、最冷月均温、温度年较差和潜在蒸散量的相关性最显著(P0.01),Pielou指数与年均温、最冷月均温、实际蒸散量、潜在蒸散量和郁闭度有显著相关关系(P0.05);(3)方差分解结果表明,能量和水分的共同作用对物种多样性指数空间分布格局的解释率最高,达到15%—42%;植物特性、能量和水分因子三者共同作用对物种多样性指数空间分布格局解释率次之,为14%—27%;植物特性与能量因子或水分因子两者之间的共同作用以及植物特性和水分因子独立作用对物种多样性指数空间分布格局的解释率较小,其中能量因子对物种多样性指数空间分布格局的单独解释率高于植物特性或水分因子。研究表明能量和水分共同作用是影响大尺度森林乔木层物种多样性空间分布格局形成的主要因素,但植物特性的差异对物种多样性空间分布格局影响也不可忽视。     

亚热带不同纬度森林群落物种空间分布格局

为探讨我国亚热带森林群落中物种空间分布格局特点及其成因,揭示其共性规律和个性差异,为相关区域的生物多样性保护和监测工作提供科学依据。选取我国亚热带不同纬度的6个1 hm²典型森林群落中所有胸径（DBH,Diameter at Breast Height）≥ 1 cm的物种为研究对象;采用L （t）方程统计所有监测物种的空间分布格局类型,为满足L （t）方程的统计精度,将各群落中多度≥10株的植物以物种为单位统计,多度<10株的低多度物种和单个体物种则以种组为单位进行空间点格局分析;并对物种多度、胸径与空间聚集程度的度量指标L₁₀进行相关性分析。结果表明：（1）亚热带不同纬度群落中多度≥10株物种的空间分布格局表现出相似的尺度依赖性规律：显著聚集分布比例随尺度增大而降低,不同纬度群落的变化幅度存在差异,纬度较低的群落稳定性更强。（2）各群落中低多度种组空间分布格局表现出小尺度显著聚集分布,大尺度随机分布的尺度效应,但尺度效应在不同纬度群落间存在差异;各群落的单个体种组空间分布格局均以随机分布为主。（3）不同纬度群落物种多度与空间聚集程度之间均存在负相关关系,物种多度对空间聚集程度的影响随纬度从高到低逐渐减弱。（4）较高纬度群落物种胸径与空间聚集程度之间存在负相关关系;随纬度从高到低,物种胸径对空间聚集程度影响水平逐渐降低。对亚热带不同纬度森林群落物种空间分布格局形成原因的进一步探讨,认为由纬度差异引起的生境异质性是影响群落物种空间分布格局产生过程的主要因素,此外,林型、扩散限制、密度制约和随机作用是影响各群落物种空间格局成因及多样性维持的次要因素。     

北京东灵山地区植物群落多样性研究 Ⅹ.不同尺度下群落样带的β多样性及分形分析

选取不同尺度,采用β多样性指数和分形分析方法对东灵山暖温带森林样带上群落多样性随海拔梯度的空间变异规律进行了研究。结果表明,１）Ｃｏｄｙ指数揭示出乔木层在取样尺度２０ｍ和灌木层在取样尺度８０ｍ时,随海拔梯度变化呈明确的物种替代规律性;乔木层和灌木层在同一地点的物种替代速率具有互补性;群落多样性的空间变异在样带的起始（山底）和终止（山顶）地段较高。２）笔者提出的群落结构变异（ＣｏｍｍｕｎｉｔｙＳｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅＶａｒｉａｔｉｏｎ,ＣＳＶ）指数介于０～１之间,作为Ｃｏｄｙ指数的改进,它对群落多样性沿环境梯度变化的揭示更接近于实际情况;ＣＳＶ指数分析显示乔木层在＞４０ｍ取样尺度,灌木层＞２０ｍ取样尺度群落结构出现明确变异规律;物种丰富度（Ｃｏｄｙ指数）和群落结构（ＣＳＶ指数）变化规律性的表现尺度（取样尺度）不同。３）分形分析的结果,乔木主林层在２００ｍ内不同尺度间不存在相关规律,乔木更新层只在＜４０ｍ尺度显示出尺度依赖性,灌木层的尺度依赖特征则表现为小尺度变异显著而较大尺度上变异程度降低;乔木更新层与灌木层的异质性规律发生显著变化（拐点）的尺度不同,分别为４０ｍ和９０～１００ｍ。同时,还对群落学研究中的取样尺度问题进行了探讨。     

澜沧江流域水生昆虫群落分类多样性和功能多样性海拔格局的空间尺度依赖性

群落分类多样性和功能多样性的海拔格局研究, 是了解生物多样性空间分布现状、揭示多样性维持和变化机制的重要途径。当前对水生昆虫分类多样性和功能多样性沿海拔梯度分布格局, 及其尺度依赖性依旧缺乏深入研究。本文基于2013-2018年在云南澜沧江流域500-3,900 m海拔梯度共149个溪流点位的水生昆虫群落调查数据, 利用线性或二次回归模型探索并比较了局部尺度(点位尺度)和不同区域尺度(100 m、150 m、200 m、250 m海拔段)的分类多样性指数(物种丰富度指数、Simpson多样性指数和物种均匀度指数)和功能多样性指数(树状图功能多样性指数(dbFD)、Rao二次熵指数(RaoQ)和功能均匀度指数(FEve))的海拔格局。结果表明, 在局部尺度, 物种丰富度指数和dbFD指数沿海拔梯度均无显著分布特征, Simpson多样性指数、RaoQ指数、物种均匀度指数和FEve指数沿海拔梯度呈现U型或者单调递减趋势。在区域尺度, 随着区域海拔带宽度的增加, 物种丰富度指数沿海拔呈不显著的单调递减格局, 但dbFD指数沿海拔分布由U型转变为单调递减趋势; Simpson多样性指数和RaoQ指数沿海拔梯度由显著U型趋势转变为无显著分布特征; 物种均匀度指数沿海拔梯度无显著分布特征, 但FEve指数呈显著增加的海拔格局。综上, 群落分类多样性指数和功能多样性指数沿海拔梯度分布存在局部和区域尺度的空间差异, 但区域尺度下二者海拔格局随海拔带宽度的增加存在一定程度的一致性。     

海南尖峰岭热带山地雨林物种多样性空间分布格局的尺度效应

物种多样性的空间分布格局和维持机制是群落生态学的基本问题。为了探讨海南尖峰岭地区物种多样性空间分布格局的尺度效应, 以海南尖峰岭热带山地雨林60 hm²样地为研究对象, 分析了物种丰富度、物种多度、Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数以及Pielou均匀度指数随6个空间取样尺度(5 m × 5 m、10 m × 10 m、20 m × 20 m、40 m × 40 m、100 m ×100 m、200 m × 200 m)的变化。结果表明: 相比Simpson指数和Pielou均匀度指数, 物种丰富度、多度以及Shannon-Wiener指数具有更为明显的空间尺度效应; 物种丰富度的方差随取样尺度增加呈现单峰分布特征, 并且在20 m × 20 m尺度上达到最大值, 而物种多度的方差随取样尺度的增加而增大; 物种丰富度和多度的正相关性随着取样尺度的增加逐渐减小甚至消失, 这可能与随取样尺度增加生境异质性增加有关; 取样尺度对3个物种多样性指数空间分布的影响可能与研究区域内稀有种的组成有关。     

Spatial scale dependence of the species diversityin Tianmu Mountain and its relationship with spatial patterns by using multifractal analysis

This study took the Tianmu Mountain National Natural Preservation Area in western Zhejiang Province as an example 1) to quantify the species diversity with selected species indices including Shannon-Wiener index (H), Margalef index (K) and Evenness index (E) at different spatial scales, 2) to analyze the spatial distribution patterns of the species diversity by multifractal parameters such as the singularity index α, its fractal dimension f(α), the f(α)–α spectrum range (SR) and its symmetry (Dist) using the multifractal theory, and 3) to determine their relationships. Results of nonlinear regression analysis with power functions showed that increasing spatial scale resulted in increasing H but decreasing E and K, indicating that the scale dependence of species diversity existed. By using the multifractal method, it was indicated that species spatial distribution had multifractal features. Moreover, strong linear relationships of the diversity indices H, E and K with α_min and clear nonlinear associations of the diversity indices H, E and K with power functions for SR and Dist were found. Since interactions of the species diversity and the spatial characteristics are very complex, the above mentioned relationships need further validation along with precise explanations of any correlations among their ecological processes.     

湖南栎类天然次生林林分空间结构对灌木物种多样性的影响

林分空间结构会显著影响其林下植被多样性,为明确其影响灌木物种多样性的关键因子,以栎类天然次生林为研究对象,利用Pearson简单相关分析、多元线性逐步回归法与典型相关分析探索乔木层空间结构与林下灌木物种多样性的相关关系,为保护林下植被多样性提供生态经营建议。以混交度、聚集指数和开敞度表达林分空间结构,以Margalef指数、Pielou指数和AuclairGoff指数作为灌木物种多样性评价指标,利用3种统计分析方法分析两者之间的相关关系,研究结果表明:(1)Pearson相关分析结果显示混交度对灌木层Pielou指数和AuclairGoff指数影响显著(P0.05),其余指数均不显著;(2)多元线性逐步回归分析结果显示林下灌木物种多样性受到多个林分空间指标的综合影响,其中Pielou指数受到混交度、聚集指数和开敞度的显著影响,AuclairGoff指数受到混交度与开敞度的显著影响;(3)典型相关分析结果显示,第一对典型相关变量通过显著性检验,典型相关系数为0.5427,林分空间结构与灌木层多样性指标两组变量在整体上相关性较强,其中混交度是影响力最大的变量。因此,欲提高栎类天然次生林下灌木物种多样性,应选择以调整树种结构为主,综合考虑林木空间分布格局的调整方案。     

Interpreting Ecological Diversity Indices Applied to Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Data: Insights from Simulated Microbial Communities

Ecological diversity indices are frequently applied to molecular profiling methods, such as terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP), in order to compare diversity among microbial communities. We performed simulations to determine whether diversity indices calculated from T-RFLP profiles could reflect the true diversity of the underlying communities despite potential analytical artifacts. These include multiple taxa generating the same terminal restriction fragment (TRF) and rare TRFs being excluded by a relative abundance (fluorescence) threshold. True community diversity was simulated using the lognormal species abundance distribution. Simulated T-RFLP profiles were generated by assigning each species a TRF size based on an empirical or modeled TRF size distribution. With a typical threshold (1%), the only consistently useful relationship was between Smith and Wilson evenness applied to T-RFLP data (TRF-E_var) and true Shannon diversity (H′), with correlations between 0.71 and 0.81. TRF-H′ and true H′ were well correlated in the simulations using the lowest number of species, but this correlation declined substantially in simulations using greater numbers of species, to the point where TRF-H′ cannot be considered a useful statistic. The relationships between TRF diversity indices and true indices were sensitive to the relative abundance threshold, with greatly improved correlations observed using a 0.1% threshold, which was investigated for comparative purposes but is not possible to consistently achieve with current technology. In general, the use of diversity indices on T-RFLP data provides inaccurate estimates of true diversity in microbial communities (with the possible exception of TRF-E_var). We suggest that, where significant differences in T-RFLP diversity indices were found in previous work, these should be reinterpreted as a reflection of differences in community composition rather than a true difference in community diversity.     

Halogenated 2,5-pyrrolidinediones: synthesis, bacterial mutagenicity in Ames tester strain TA-100 and semi-empirical molecular orbital calculations

The chloroimide 3,3-dichloro-4-(dichloromethylene)-2,5-pyrrolidinedione, a tetrachloroitaconimide, is the principal mutagen produced by chlorination of simulated poultry chiller water. It is the second most potent mutagenic disinfection by-product of chlorination ever reported. Six of seven new synthetic analogs of this compound are direct-acting mutagens in Ames tester strain TA-100. Computed energies of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (E_LUMO) and of the radical anion stability (ΔH_f^rad−ΔH_f) from MNDO-PM3 for the chloroimides show a quantitative correlation with the Ames TA-100 bacterial mutagenicity values. The molar mutagenicities of these direct acting mutagenic imides having an exocyclic double bond fit the same linear correlation (ln M_m vs. E_LUMO; ln M_m vs. ΔH_f^rad−ΔH_f) as the chlorinated 2(5H)-furanones, including the potent mutagen MX, 3-chloro-4-(dichloro-methyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone, a by-product of water chlorination and paper bleaching with chlorine. Mutagenicity data for related haloimides having endocyclic double bonds are also given. For the same number of chlorine atoms, the imides with endocyclic double bonds have significantly higher Ames mutagenicity compared to their structural analogs with exocyclic double bonds, but do not follow the same E_LUMO or ΔH_f^rad−ΔH_f correlation as the exocyclic chloroimides and the chlorinated 2(5H)-furanones.     

Scale-dependent relationships between the spatial distribution of a limiting resource and plant species diversity in an African grassland ecosystem

One cornerstone of ecological theory is that nutrient availability limits the number of species that can inhabit a community. However, the relationship between the spatial distribution of limiting nutrients and species diversity is not well established because there is no single scale appropriate for measuring variation in resource distribution. Instead, the correct scale for analyzing resource variation depends on the range of species sizes within the community. To quantify the relationship between nutrient distribution and plant species diversity, we measured NO₃^- distribution and plant species diversity in 16 paired, modified Whittaker grassland plots in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Semivariograms were used to quantify the spatial structure of NO₃^- from scales of 0.4–26 m. Plant species diversity (Shannon-Weiner diversity index; H ) was quantified in 1-m² plots, while plant species richness was measured at multiple spatial scales between 1 and 1,000 m². Small-scale variation in NO₃^- (<0.4 m) was positively correlated with 1-m² H , while 1,000-m² species richness was a log-normal function of average NO₃^- patch size. Nine of the 16 grassland plots had a fractal (self-similar across scales) NO₃^- spatial distribution; of the nine fractal plots, five were adjacent to plots that had a non-fractal distribution of NO₃^-. This finding offered the unique opportunity to test predictions of Ritchie and Olff (1999): when the spatial distribution of limiting resources is fractal, communities should display a left-skewed log-size distribution and a log-normal relationship between net primary production and species richness. These predictions were supported by comparisons of plant size distributions and biomass-richness relationships in paired plots, one with a fractal and one with a non-fractal distribution of NO₃^-. In addition, fractal plots had greater large-scale richness than paired non-fractal plots (1,0–1000 m²), but neither species diversity (H ) nor richness was significantly different at small scales (1 m²). This result is most likely explained by differences in the scale of resource variation among plots: fractal and non-fractal plots had equivalent NO₃^- variation at small scales but differed in NO₃^- variation at large scales (as measured by the fractal dimension). We propose that small-scale variation in NO₃^- is largely due to the direct effects of plants on soil, while patterns of species richness at large scales is controlled by the patch size and fractal dimension of NO₃^- in the landscape. This study provides an important empirical step in understanding the relationship between the spatial distribution of resources and patterns of species diversity across multiple spatial scales.     

井冈山鹿角杜鹃群落灌木层功能多样性及其随海拔梯度的变化

研究植物群落功能多样性沿环境梯度的变化可以揭示功能多样性与生态系统功能间的关系及维持机制。以井冈山地区鹿角杜鹃（Rhododendron latoucheae）群落为研究对象,通过调查不同海拔梯度群落灌木层植物的物种组成与结构特征,研究了该群落类型灌木层植物的物种多样性、功能多样性、环境因子的特征及其相互之间的关系。结果表明：1）群落类型灌木层植物物种多样性和功能多样性沿海拔梯度呈现不同的变化趋势。物种多样性指数均随着海拔的升高呈减小趋势,而功能多样性指数的变化却较为复杂。其中FRic、FEve和FDis随着海拔的升高显著减小,FDiv和Rao却随海拔的升高而增加;2）群落中物种多样性和功能多样性呈现复杂的相关性。FRic、FEve与丰富度指数呈显著正相关,而Rao、FDis、FDiv与Simpson优势度指数呈线性相关关系,且具有显著相关性;3）群落所分布的坡位及土壤氮与磷含量等环境因子对灌木植物的功能多样性有着重要的影响。鹿角杜鹃群落灌木层植物的物种多样性和功能多样性的相互关系及其对环境变化的响应共同决定了群落的生态系统功能。     

Additive partitioning of aquatic invertebrate species diversity across multiple spatial scales

1. Additive partitioning of three measures of diversity (species richness, Shannon's diversity index H and Simpson's diversity D) was used to study the relationship between local and regional diversity of benthic macroinvertebrate communities of boreal lakes (littoral habitats) and streams (riffle habitats) across three spatial scales (sampling sites, ecoregions and biogeographic regions). 2. Alpha (α) and beta (β) diversity are defined as within‐habitat and between‐habitat diversity, respectively. According to the concept of additive partitioning, diversity can be partitioned across multiple spatial scales such that the total (γ) diversity on one spatial scale becomes within‐habitat (α) diversity at the next higher scale. Hence, the total diversity at one scale is determined by the α diversity and the between‐habitat diversity (β) at the next lower scale. Consequently, one of the advantages of additive partitioning is that it is possible to study simultaneously β diversity and the regional‐local species relationship and the scale dependence of α and β components. 3. For both lakes and streams α diversity was low for sites and ecoregions, whereas β diversity was high, indicating that among‐site factors are important in describing the variability among the lakes and streams studied here. 4. Weak, albeit significant, evidence was found for regional and local species saturation patterns. Multiple stepwise regression indicated that local processes might be more important in structuring lake‐littoral and stream‐riffle species assemblages than regional processes. From these results we conclude that environmental heterogeneity may act as an important factor contributing to species coexistence, resulting in the observed saturation patterns. 5. Our study supports the use of additive partitioning for identifying specific patterns of macroinvertebrate diversity on multiple spatial scales and the underlying processes generating these patterns. This information is needed to improve understanding of the relation between patterns and processes affecting (decreasing) trends in aquatic biodiversity.     

Molecular and biochemical evolution of maize terpene synthase 10, an enzyme of indirect defense

Maize plants attacked by lepidopteran larvae emit a volatile mixture that consists mostly of the sesquiterpene olefins, (E)-α-bergamotene and (E)-β-farnesene. These volatiles are produced by the herbivore-induced terpene synthase TPS10 and attract natural enemies to the damaged plants. A survey of volatiles in maize lines and species of teosinte showed that the TPS10 products (E)-α-bergamotene and (E)-β-farnesene are consistently induced by herbivory, indicating that release of TPS10 volatiles is a defense trait conserved among maize and its wild relatives. Sequence comparison of TPS10 from maize and its apparent orthologs from four teosinte species demonstrated stabilizing selection on this defense trait. The teosinte volatiles and the enzymatic activity of the apparent TPS10 orthologs were not completely uniform but varied in the ratio of (E)-α-bergamotene to (E)-β-farnesene products formed. We identified a single amino acid in the active center which determines the ratio of (E)-α-bergamotene to (E)-β-farnesene and has changed during the evolution of maize and teosinte species. Feeding experiments with the substrate (Z,E)-farnesyl diphosphate revealed that this amino acid controls the rate of isomerization of the (E,E)-farnesyl carbocation intermediate to the (Z,E)-configuration.     

Space-time variability in mediterranean pastures analyzed with diversity parameters

Different parameters of diversity and spatial niche amplitude (Piclou, 1975, Pineda et al., 1981b) have been used to describe the spatial organization of mediterranean grasslands in Central Spain. A slope sampled by 480 contiguous 8×8 cm quadrats proved to have a homogeneous floristic distribution when it was divided into 160 parts and maximum heterogeneity when divided into 4 sectors. These sectors corresponded to different geomorphological zones of the slope. The complexity of vegetation distribution on the slope was reflected by differences in organization — measured by diversity parameter A=H(P/E)/log₂ N (number of plots) between the parts obtained by division. The presence of low-entropy species — specialists - and high entropy species — generalists — was related to the different scales of slope organization. The spatial distribution of plants was compared for different successional stages. Multivariate analysis of sampling plots confirmed previously identified organizational characteristics and clarified the nature of transitions between communities of different floristic composition or structure.     

Keratometric Index Obtained by Fourier-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography

Purpose

To determine the keratometric indices calculated based on parameters obtained by Fourier-domain optical coherence tomography (FD-OCT).

Methods

The ratio of anterior corneal curvature to posterior corneal curvature (Ratio) and keratometric index (N) were calculated within central 3 mm zone with the RTVue FD-OCT (RTVue, Optovue, Inc.) in 186 untreated eyes, 60 post-LASIK/PRK eyes, and 39 keratoconus eyes. The total corneal powers were calculated using different keratometric indices: K_cal based on the mean calculated keratometric index, K_1.3315 calculated by the keratometric index of 1.3315, and K_1.3375 calculated by the keratometric index of 1.3375. In addition, the total corneal powers based on Gaussian optics formula (K_actual) were calculated.

Results

The means for Ratio in untreated controls, post-LASIK/PRK group and keratoconus group were 1.176 ± 0.022 (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.172–1.179), 1.314 ± 0.042 (95%CI, 1.303–1.325) and 1.229 ± 0.118 (95%CI, 1.191–1.267), respectively. And the mean calculated keratometric index in untreated controls, post-LASIK/PRK group and keratoconus group were 1.3299 ± 0.00085 (95%CI, 1.3272–1.3308), 1.3242 ± 0.00171 (95%CI, 1.3238–1.3246) and 1.3277 ± 0.0046 (95%CI, 1.3263–1.3292), respectively. All the parameters were normally distributed. The differences between K_cal and K_actual, K_1.3315 and K_actual, and K_1.3375 and K_actual were 0.00 ± 0.11 D, 0.21 ± 0.11 D and 0.99 ± 0.12 D, respectively, in untreated controls; -0.01 ± 0.20 D, 0.85 ± 0.18 D and 1.56 ± 0.16 D, respectively, in post-LASIK/PRK group; and 0.03 ± 0.67 D, 0.56 ± 0.70 D and 1.40 ± 0.76 D, respectively, in keratoconus group.

Conclusion

The calculated keratometric index is negatively related to the ratio of anterior corneal curvature to posterior corneal curvature in untreated, post-LASIK/PRK, and keratoconus eyes, respectively. Using the calculated keratometric index may improve the prediction accuracies of total corneal powers in untreated controls, but not in post-LASIK/PRK and keratoconus eyes.