Do seed transfer zones for ecological restoration reflect the spatial genetic variation of the common grassland species Lathyrus pratensis?

A common ecological restoration approach is the reestablishment of vegetation using seed mixtures. To preserve the natural genetic pattern of plant species local seed material should be used. Consequently, seed transfer zones (seed production areas and seed provenance regions) have been delineated for ecological restoration in Germany. Although it is assumed that these transfer zones represent genetic variation, there remains a lack of empirical data. In this study, we analyzed whether seed transfer zones reflect the genetic variation of the common grassland species Lathyrus pratensis. We sampled 706 individuals from 37 populations in Bavaria, Germany and analyzed genetic variation using amplified fragment length polymorphisms. In our study, we observed higher levels of genetic variation and fragment rarity in the southern Bavarian populations compared to northern populations. Our analyses revealed a strong genetic differentiation between southern and northern Bavarian populations delineated along the Danube River. However, seed production areas and seed provenance regions reflected genetic variation of L. pratensis only to a limited degree. Our study illustrates that the level of genetic variation within populations strongly depends on population history. Furthermore, the geomorphological and climatic attributes, which have been used to delineate seed provenance regions, do not reduce gene flow among populations. Seed collections for gene banks and seed production should comprise seeds from populations in southern and northern Bavaria representing the strong genetic variation between both regions, but prioritize southern populations due to higher levels of variation.     

Genetic Delineation of Local Provenance in Persoonia longifolia: Implications for Seed Sourcing for Ecological Restoration

Restoration of diverse native plant communities typically requires the collection of large amounts of seed. Thus, practitioners often struggle to find adequate supplies near project sites and need to know from how far they can collect without compromising restoration success—how far does local provenance extend? We addressed this issue by assessing genetic variation within, and differentiation among, 12 potential seed source populations of Persoonia longifolia, a key component of the jarrah forest of Western Australia. An analysis of molecular variance of 66 polymorphic amplified fragment length polymorphism markers partitioned 92% of the total genetic variation within populations and 8% among populations, indicating relatively weak but statistically significant population genetic differentiation. Ordination of these genetic data showed marked west/east and north/south gradients. Pairwise population genetic dissimilarity was correlated with both geographic distance and environmental distance derived from five climate variables. However, partial Mantel tests showed that the relationship between genetic and geographic distance was not independent of environmental distance, suggesting a non‐neutral signature in these markers. Bayesian outlier analysis identified two markers, and spatial analysis method tests identified highly significant associations between these two markers and three environmental variables. Frequency differences at these markers across populations suggested the possibility of climatically adapted provenances. The global significance value from analyses of similarities for these two markers correlated to a general provenance distance of 47 km, in contrast to a threshold of 60 km for the complete dataset. Guidelines for seed sourcing that consider these population genetic data should lead to more effective ecological restoration with this species.     

Genetic differentiation of Rosa canina (L.) at regional and continental scales

We investigated the genetic differentiation of Rosa canina at regional and continental scales to delineate provenance regions for seed collection. Using RAPD technique, we examined eight populations in Brandenburg (Germany) and 13 samples from Bavaria and Hungary. AMOVA and $\upphiWe investigated the genetic differentiation of Rosa canina at regional and continental scales to delineate provenance regions for seed collection. Using RAPD technique, we examined eight populations in Brandenburg (Germany) and 13 samples from Bavaria and Hungary. AMOVA and -statistics revealed a significant differentiation ( = 0.23, P < 0.0001) between accessions from Brandenburg and the two other regions. The interpopulation differentiation in Brandenburg was low ( = 0.13). We found the greatest interpopulation distance between Hungary and Brandenburg (Hoher Fl?ming, = 0.47) and the lowest between Dahmeland and Hoher Fl?ming (both Brandenburg, = 0.01). UPGMA dendrogram and PCA showed a clear disjunction between Brandenburg and other regions. Due to the outcrossing mating and seed dispersal system, the genetic variation within R. canina populations is moderately high (87% for Brandenburg, 76% for Bavaria and Hungary). The significant genetic differentiation at the continental scale suggests lower gene flow with increasing geographical distance and underlines the usefulness of regional provenances for planting.     

Revisiting the provenance delineation of a widespread shrub, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Frangula alnus</Emphasis>—the role of spatial,temporal and environmental patterns

Including population genetic aspects into the selection of planting material within the framework of conservation and restoration measures is of vital importance for the long-term persistence of populations. This is especially true facing climate change since genetic diversity and the spread of potentially beneficial alleles are important for the adaptability of populations. Therefore, knowledge about genetic variability within and between populations is a critical aspect when determining provenance regions. In our study, we investigated the population genetic structure of a widespread, insect-pollinated and mainly bird-dispersed shrub species, Frangula alnus, on the basis of seven microsatellites and two chloroplast DNA markers throughout Germany. The aim was to determine the spatial, temporal and ecological processes genetically structuring populations to critically revise existing provenance regions. Therefore, we conducted analyses on different spatial scales (country-wide, regional and local) using the two different marker sets in addition to environmental variables. We detected distinct patterns on all spatial scales which indicated influences of historic recolonization processes, regional differences of seed dispersal across the landscape, as well as small-scale spatial genetic structures attributable to local dispersal processes. No relation of underlying environmental gradients such as temperature or precipitation and genetic patterns was found. We conclude that different aspects of historic and more recent gene flow shape population genetic structures and that a thorough analysis on a variety of spatial, temporal and environmental scales is necessary to appropriately select planting material for conservation and restoration measures. Correspondingly, management advice regarding provenance delineations will be provided.     

Molecular characterization of sawtooth oak (Quercus acutissima) germplasm based on randomly amplified polymorphic DNA

Sawtooth oak (Quercus acutissima) is a predominant tree species in the deciduous broad-leaved forest in China. It distributes in a large landscape area and can disperse in various ecology types. Molecular study on sawtooth oak can provide valuable information about the genetic diversity level and genetic relatedness on this important tree species. Insight into the genetic structure also provides resources of a species with its current feature and future evolutionary potential. The genetic structure of sawtooth oak was investigated by randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Twelve RAPD markers were used to assess genetic diversity of 408 individuals from 17 provenances enveloping most of the current distribution area of sawtooth oak. A total of 66 amplification products were detected, of which 49 bands (74.24 %) were polymorphic. Nei’s gene diversity, 0.2409, indicated a relatively high level of genetic variation in sawtooth oak germplasm. Analysis of molecular variance showed that most of the genetic diversity (87 %) was allocated within provenances. A combination of UPGMA dendrogram and STRUCTURE analysis was employed to estimate the genetic relationships of sawtooth oak germplasm; interestingly, the two methods presented similar grouping pattern with few discrepancies. Results revealed that 16 out of 17 provenances were clustered into one group, while the other 1 (LQ provenance) constituted a separate cluster. The data presented in this study suggested that the RAPD method was a valuable tool for estimation of genetic diversity and genetic relatedness of sawtooth oak germplasm. The present study also gave useful implications for germplasm conservation and new cultivar development for this promising energy tree species.     

Variation in functional leaf traits among beech provenances during a Spanish summer reflects the differences in their origin

We assessed the response of 11-year-old saplings from six beech provenances growing in a common-garden trial at the southwestern range limit. Provenances from distinct climatic regions across the European beech distribution were selected. The local Spanish provenance appeared well suited to the site conditions, maintaining high rates of assimilation even in midsummer, but so did the provenance of southern continental origin, from Gotze-Delchev, Bulgaria. Those provenances from cooler sites in central Europe, a continental mountain climate in the Czech Republic and a continental range-edge site in eastern Poland, along with a German provenance of mild maritime origin, had good physiological functionality in early summer but reduced carbon assimilation (A _area) and apparent soil?Cleaf hydraulic conductivity (K _L) in midsummer. The northern maritime provenance from Sweden demonstrated severely-reduced photosynthetic capacity. These groupings of provenances according to their photosynthetic performance, stable carbon isotope composition (??¹³C; a proxy for water-use efficiency) and leaf water potential under marginal conditions, during late summer in the trial, suggest that they have divergent strategies for water use. The research highlights large intraspecific differences among beech provenances of distinct origin and strategies which are expected to modify their response to drought, requiring future genetic studies to explicitly determine the basis of this ecophysiological differentiation.     

不同种源麻栎种子和苗木性状地理变异趋势面分析

麻栎(Quercus acutissima Carr.)是优良的能源和用材树种,在我国分布广泛并已有悠久栽培利用的历史,研究其种子和苗木性状地理变异规律对选择优良种源和适生区十分必要.研究收集了13个省(区)36个种源的麻栎种子,在测定麻栎种子性状的基础上,在安徽省滁州市红琊山林场进行了苗期试验和苗木性状测定,并采用趋势面分析方法对这些性状在经纬2维方向的地理变异模式进行了剖析.结果表明:1)麻栎种源间种子长度、宽度、百粒重和营养内含物存在极显著差异.种子百粒重、长度和宽度总体表现双向渐变趋势,随经度增高而增大,随纬度增高而减小,主要受到经度的控制;以西南到东北为中间地带,可溶性糖含量向东南表现先下降后上升的趋势,向西北则相反;淀粉含量从西北到东南呈逐渐减小的趋势.2)麻栎种源苗高、地径、生物量、热值和木材化学组分存在极显著差异.苗高、地径和生物量均呈双向渐变,经正向变异且变化幅度较大,纬负向变异且变化幅度较小,经度影响大于纬度;热值拟合回归方程不显著,方程无意义.木质素含量北部大于南部,但北部以西北部最高,南部以东南部最高.3)研究显示,麻栎种子和苗木性状多数存在显著的地理变异模式,这也是麻栎在长期进化过程中为适应复杂多变的环境而产生与之相适应的遗传变异结果.     

利用RAPD 标记技术对白桦种源遗传变异的分析及种源区划

用随机扩增多态DNA(RAPD)分子标记方法对白桦17 个种源152 个个体进行了遗传变异的比较分析, 通过14 个随机引物扩增共检测到233 个位点, 各种源多态位点百分率差异明显, 范围在20.17%~32.19%之间, 多态位点百分率最高的是帽儿山种源和清源种源, 最低的是绰尔种源。遗传变异在种源间占43.53%, 在种源内个体间占56.47%。根据种源间的遗传距离, 构建了白桦17 个种源的遗传关系聚类图, 结果将东北地区的白桦聚为一类, 华北、西北地区的白桦聚为另一类。同时根据地理气候因子和遗传距离对白桦群体进行了种源区的划分。     

Molecular characterization and genetic structure of Quercus acutissima germplasm in China using microsatellites

Quercus acutissima is native to eastern Asia. It has a wide distribution in China and China is an important component in understanding the ecology and genetic structure of this species. Q. acutissima attained high economic value for hardwood product and can be managed as an energy tree species. To investigate the genetic variation of Q. acutissima provenances, 12 microsatellite primer pairs were used to analyze 672 trees sampled from 28 provenances of Q. acutissima in China. All of the tested microsatellite loci proved to be effective for the studied Q. acutissima provenances. The results revealed that allele numbers varied from 5 to 13 per locus, with an average of 8 alleles per locus. The mean observed heterozygosity and expected heterozygosity were 0.4927 and 0.7023, respectively. The relatedness of the provenances was studied using the arithmetic mean algorithm based on Nei’s genetic distance and principal coordinates analysis. Interestingly, both approaches revealed two main groups: one consisted of the eastern Chinese provenances, and the other comprised of the western Chinese provenances. An analysis of molecular variance indicated that most genetic variation was contained within populations (84 %). The two microsatellite markers developed in this study may be employed for genetic characterization of other oak species. Considering the management or breeding programs of Q. acutissima provenances in China, we should treat each main group as a single gene resource.     

Population Genetic Structure of a Widespread Bat-Pollinated Columnar Cactus

Bats are the main pollinators and seed dispersers of Stenocereus thurberi, a xenogamous columnar cactus of northwestern Mexico and a good model to illustrate spatial dynamics of gene flow in long-lived species. Previous studies in this cactus showed differences among populations in the type and abundance of pollinators, and in the timing of flowering and fruiting. In this study we analyzed genetic variability and population differentiation among populations. We used three primers of ISSR to analyze within and among populations genetic variation from eight widely separated populations of S. thurberi in Sonora, Mexico. Sixty-six out of 99 of the ISSR bands (P = 66.7%) were polymorphic. Total heterozygosity for all populations sampled revealed high genetic diversity (H_sp = 0.207, H_BT = 0.224). The AMOVA showed that most of the genetic variation was within populations (80.5%). At the species level, estimates of population differentiation, θ = 0.175 and θ^B = 0.194, indicated moderate gene flow among populations. The absence of a significant correlation between genetic and geographic distances indicated little isolation by geographic distance. The large genetic variation and diversity found in S. thurberi is consistent with its open reproductive system and the high mobility of bats, a major pollinator. However, small changes in number or kind of pollinators and seed dispersal agents, in the directionality of migratory routes, and/or in the timing of flowering and fruiting among populations, can critically affect gene flow dynamics.     

Genetic diversity and differentiation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fagus orientalis</Emphasis> Lipsky in Hyrcanian forests revealed by nuclear and chloroplast microsatellite markers

Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) is a widespread monoecious and wind-pollinated tree species. It is one of the major components of the Hyrcanian forests of Iran and it is of both ecological and economical importance. Twelve beech stands were surveyed at 9 chloroplast (cp) and 6 nuclear (n) polymorphic microsatellite loci (simple sequence repeats, SSR) to provide information on distribution of genetic diversity within and among populations and on gene conservation and silvicultural management of this species. High levels of genetic differentiation were detected for the chloroplast genome (F _ST = 0.80 and R _ST = 0.95), in sharp contrast to the nuclear genome (F _ST = 0.06, R _ST = 0.05). The analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed that 48% of the total cpSSR variation was attributable to differences among regions and 30% to differences among populations within regions, suggesting multiple origins of beech populations in Hyrcanian forests. Nuclear SSRs confirmed the presence of significant differentiation among populations and among geographic regions, even if, as expected, this was less pronounced than that found with cpSSRs (based on AMOVA, differences among regions and among populations within regions each contribute 5% to total nSSR variance). A highly significant correlation between genetic (nSSRs) and geographic distances (R ² = 0.522) was estimated, thus showing an isolation by distance effect. The application of spatial analysis of molecular variance (SAMOVA) using both marker data allowed identification of genetically homogeneous groups of populations. Possible applications of these results for the certification of provenances and/or seed lots and for designing conservation programs are presented and discussed.     

Breeding for high production of leaves of baobab (Adansonia digitata L) in an irrigated hedge system

This study presents an evaluation of an irrigated “market garden” trial established with 3-month-old seedlings of baobab. The trial included offspring from 59 open-pollinated family lots from ten provenances and four bulked provenance sample lots. Leaf productivity and seedling growth were evaluated monthly from the third month after establishment. We found lowered leaf productivity during the dry season despite the plants being irrigated. We provide the first estimates of heritability for leaf production and growth of the species. We assumed that the families of seed from open-pollinated single trees consist of true half-sibs but also provided adjusted estimates assuming a high level of selfing. Differences among provenances and families within provenances were highly significant (p?<?0.01) with respect to leaf productivity. Heritability estimates (adjusted and non-adjusted) for leaf productivity were moderate to low, predicting moderate genetic gain from selection. Strong genetic and phenotypic correlations were estimated between diameter and leaf production, indicating that simple selection for diameter can efficiently increase leaf production. The dry weight/fresh weight ratio was not significantly different among provenances or families within provenances. Based on the findings, we discuss how breeding can increase the total leaf production and its seasonal distribution.     

Genetic variability among Pinus pinea L. provenances for survival and growth traits in Portugal

Pinus pinea L. (Mediterranean stone pine) is an important forest species not only for its economically relevant kernel production, but also for environmental protection. The detection of genetic variability is an essential issue for Mediterranean forest species for conservation and improvement programs. Based on data collected for several years at three field sites from a P. pinea L. provenance trial established in Portugal in 1993, the present study aimed to evaluate the genetic variability of the adaptive traits of P. pinea L. and to identify a group of provenances with high performance for growth traits to be used in future plantings. Several mixed models were fitted to survival and growth trait data to estimate provenance and provenance × site interaction variability. The empirical best linear unbiased predictors of provenance genotypic effects were used to select a superior group of provenances. The provenance genetic variability of P. pinea L. was successfully detected for survival and height of different planting ages and also for diameter at breast height at age 13 years after planting. For growth traits, the most successful methods used for evaluating provenance genetic variability were based on the linear mixed spatial models. When multi-environmental analysis was performed, provenance × site interaction variability was detected for survival, but not for height at age 6 years. The existence of provenance variability in P. pinea L. permitted the identification of a seed lot composed of a mixture of the best provenances for height and diameter.     

基于SRAP标记的紫溪山华山松种子园无性系遗传多样性分析

为明确云南楚雄市紫溪山华山松种子园内不同种源无性系间的遗传背景,该研究收集了园内6个种源的60个华山松无性系单株针叶,采用改良CTAB法提取其总DNA,并利用SRAP分子标记对其进行遗传多样性分析。结果表明:(1)从100对引物组合中共筛选出15对具有多态性的SRAP引物,经SRAP-PCR扩增后,共获得出194个位点,多态位点百分率(PPB)为85.05%,Nei's基因多样性指数(H)为0.233 7,Shannon's信息指数(I)为0.341 9,种源间的遗传分化系数(GST)为0.355 5。(2)华山松6个种源遗传多样性较高,且遗传变异主要存在于华山松种源内,种源地会泽(HZ)与巍山(WS)种源的遗传距离最近(D=0.050 1),会泽(HZ)与宜良(YL)种源的遗传距离最远(D=0.361 8)。(3)聚类分析显示将6个华山松种源一共聚为3类:会泽(HZ)和巍山(WS)种源聚为一类;楚雄(CX)、南华(NH)和宜良(YL)种源聚为一类;腾冲(TC)种源单独为一类。综合上述结果显示,紫溪山华山松种子园内无性系间的遗传分化处于较高水平,为华山松杂交育种时亲本的选配及种质资源的评价提供了分子水平的理论依据。     

Intraspecific variation and phylogeographic patterns of Fagus crenata (Fagaceae) mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondrial (mt) DNA variation in Japanese beech, Fagus crenata (Fagaceae), was studied in 17 populations distributed throughout the species' range. Total genomic DNA of samples from single trees representing each of 12 populations were digested with 18 restriction enzymes and hybridized with three probes containing coxI, coxIII, and atpA gene sequences. Thirty-four of the 54 enzyme/probe combinations showed polymorphisms and all the individuals were subsequently analyzed with six combinations of three probes and two enzymes. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms were evident around all three genes, allowing the identification of eight distinct haplotypes. Haplotype diversity within the populations was found to be very low (HS = 0.031), but population differentiation to be much higher (GST = 0.963). The mtDNA variation was strikingly different from allozyme variation (HS = 0.209; GST = 0.039). Gene flow for maternally inherited mtDNA should be restricted to seed dispersal while nuclear gene flow occurs by both seed and pollen dispersal. Therefore, the difference in the variation between mtDNA and allozymes may be largely a result of the much higher rate of gene flow associated with pollen dispersal than with seed dispersal. The mtDNA variation displayed strong geographic structure, which may reflect the species' distribution in the last glacial maximum and subsequent colonization, and probably also reflects intraspecific phylogeography of the species.     

Context-dependent post-dispersal predation of acorns in a California oak community

Seed dispersal and predation play important roles in plant life history by contributing to recruitment patterns in the landscape. Mast-seeding – extensive synchronized inter-annual variability in seed production – is known to influence the activity of acorn consumers at source trees, but little is known about its effect on post-dispersal predation. We conducted a planting experiment over three years to investigate the relationship between habitat-level post-dispersal predation and landscape-wide acorn production of three sympatric oak species (Quercus spp.). We measured post-dispersal predation in three oak-dominated habitats – savanna (under Q. lobata), forest edge (under Q. agrifolia), and woodland (under Q. douglasii) – as well as in chaparral and open fields. Overall, landscape-level predation was similarly high among study years, averaging 61.4%. Neither species nor mass of planted acorns affected predation. Habitat had a significant effect on post-dispersal predation risk with acorns disappearing most rapidly in chaparral and least rapidly in woodlands. However, a significant interaction between year and habitat (Z = −4.5, P < 0.001) showed that the hierarchy of predation risk among habitats was inconsistent among years. Using annual acorn census data from local populations of each oak species, we found that predation risk in oak-dominated habitats was significantly and positively related to acorn production of the overstory species (Z = −9.53, P = 0.009). Our findings add to growing evidence that seed dispersal, predation, and regeneration are context-dependent on annual variation in community-level seed production, and we discuss the potential consequences of these dynamics on oak recruitment and animal behavior.     

Genetic variation in the nutritive value of Gliricidia sepium.: 2. Leaf chemical composition and fermentability by an in vitro gas production technique

Five Gliricidia sepium provenances, comprising three central American native populations and two land races, were grown at five sites. Replicated leaf samples were evaluated by an in vitro gas production technique, estimation of crude protein (CP), acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and coumarin content. Differences between provenances in fermentation characteristics generally achieved statistical significance (p<0.05) at all five sites, but were small (13% range or less). Significant differences (p<0.05) were found between samples of young and old leaves, leaves from sunny and shady plots and between air-dried and freeze-dried samples. Differences due to site were highly significant for all fermentation characteristics, and much greater than differences due to provenance. The compositional analyses showed highly significant genetic variation in CP and ADF, but not in NDF or coumarin levels. Again, the range of values was small (<10%), and was dwarfed by site-related effects. The reasons for the site related differences were not identified. The narrow range of provenance means for all the traits measured, compared with the considerable site-related variability, suggested that intraspecific variation in nutritive value of these five provenances of Gliricidia sepium was unlikely to be of great practical importance to livestock keepers.     

A Genetic Assessment of Ecological Restoration Success in Banksia attenuata

Rarely assessed in the success of ecological restoration projects is the maintenance of genetic variation in restored populations and, critically, their offspring. A founding population sourced from a limited genetic pool of nonlocal provenance seed can result in genetic bottlenecking and inbreeding, potentially reducing future population resilience and restoration success. We used microsatellite markers to assess the genetic variation of natural and restored populations, and their offspring, in Banksia attenuata R.Br. (Proteaceae), a keystone species of Banksia woodlands in south‐west Australia. Both natural and restored populations, and their offspring, displayed similarly high levels of heterozygosity (H_e range = 0.57–0.62) and allelic diversity (N_e range = 6.67–8.86) across 7 microsatellite loci. There was very weak population divergence (F_ST = 0.006) between the restored population and the adjacent natural population, indicating local provenance sourcing of seed. Genetic structuring within the natural population was weak, but detectable at 10 m and more strongly genetically structured than the restored population (Sp = 0.006 and 0.002, respectively). Complete outcrossing, low‐correlated paternity, and very low bi‐parental inbreeding were observed in both populations. Extensive pollen dispersal was observed within and among populations, with >50% of paternity assigned to sires beyond the local population. In a greenhouse experiment, differences in the overall performance of seedlings from natural and restored populations were negligible. Results indicate the successful genetic management of B. attenuata in this restoration project, from which general principles emphasizing the use of diverse local provenance seeds, genetic integration, and delivery of pollinator services are supported.     

Geographic variation in the adaptive landscape for seed size at dispersal in the myrmecochorous <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helleborus foetidus</Emphasis>

Literature on seed dispersal mutualisms suggests that plant populations should hardly adapt to their current dispersers. We address the predictions that selection pressures exerted by ants on dispersal-related diaspore traits of the ant-dispersed Helleborus foetidus are highly variable in space, and that geographic (inter-population) variation in these traits is unrelated to selection by current dispersers. To test these predictions we use the concept of the quantitative adaptive landscape for seed size at dispersal. Such landscape depicts the relationship between the population’s mean trait value (mean seed size in the present study) and the population’s mean fitness (mean dispersal probability in the present study). Adaptive landscapes make it possible to assess whether the mean population’s phenotype agrees with one favored by selection. We first analyse, in 12 populations of H. foetidus from southern Spain, the extent of divergence among populations in seed and elaiosome size, and the abundance, composition, and behavior of the ant communities. Seeds from a fixed set of five of these populations were offered to ants in all the study sites to fit the adaptive landscape for seed size. In addition, seeds from the local population were also offered in each site. Our results show that seed size has undergone a larger divergence among populations than elaiosome size. Despite geographic variation in ant assemblages, the adaptive landscapes for seed size at dispersal were remarkably similar among sites: ants create disruptive selection on seed size in 10 out of 12 study sites. As predicted, the basic features of these adaptive landscapes (curvature and location of the minimum) varied geographically in accordance with variation in the size of seed dispersers. Also as predicted, in most populations, the observed mean seed size does not agree with that expected from the adaptive landscapes at dispersal. However, the relevance of dispersers for seed size evolution should not be neglected since the agreement between observed and optimum seed size was stronger where dispersers were more abundant. Thus, against the general view, our results evidence that, in H. foetidus, the observed geographic variation in dispersal-related plant traits is partly linked to selection exerted by current dispersers. Geographic variation in ant assemblages determines both the existence of a selection mosaic and the degree of adjustment of populations to the patterns of selection in the mosaic.