RAN1基因过表达抑制嗜热四膜虫大核无丝分裂

Ran GTPase通过RanGTP/RanGDP循环的形式,参与调控多种细胞增殖方式：包括有丝分裂和减数分裂.敲减RAN1基因可导致嗜热四膜虫大核内微管组装紊乱,从而抑制大核无丝分裂.为进一步分析Ran1在无丝分裂中的功能,本研究将野生型Ran1以及模拟GTP（Ran1Q70L）和GDP（Ran1T25N）锁定形式的Ran1突变体在嗜热四膜虫中过量表达,均导致四膜虫细胞增殖速率下降,并引起大核无丝分裂异常,且这种核异常细胞比率与Ran1过表达量呈正相关.免疫荧光定位结果显示,过表达的HA-Ran1在整个细胞中弥散分布,破坏了正常的Ran1分布形式;而过表达的HA-Ran1Q70L明显集中在大核核膜和胞质中,HA-Ran1T25N则主要定位在大核和小核内,分别与Ran1GTP/Ran1GDP循环的辅助调节因子定位模式一致.以上结果表明,过表达Ran1及其突变体可能影响嗜热四膜虫细胞中正常的Ran1GTP/Ran1GDP循环,进而导致大核无 丝分裂异常.     

嗜热四膜虫染色体浓缩调节因子(RCC1)的定位及功能分析

真核细胞中染色体浓缩调节因子（regulator of chromosome condensation 1, RCC1）是 RanGTPase 唯一的鸟嘌呤核苷酸交换因子. 染色质结合的RCC1和RanGTPase相互作用,催化细胞核内RanGDP向RanGTP的转化,进而调控了核质间的定向运送、有丝分裂期纺锤体的组装以及核膜的形成. 本实验从原生生物嗜热四膜虫大核基因组中鉴定了1个新的RCC1（TTHERM_00530380）基因. 该基因全长2 541 bp,包含2个内含子序列,开放阅读框为2 181 bp,编码726个氨基酸. 实时荧光定量PCR表明,RCC1在四膜虫营养生长、饥饿以及有性生殖时期都有表达,且在有性生殖转录水平达到最高. 免疫荧光定位分析表明, HA RCC1在营养生长和饥饿时期,定位于大核和小核中|在有性生殖时期,定位于亲本大核、减数分裂的小核、新生成的大核和凋亡的大核中. 过表达RCC1导致大核的无丝分裂异常, 细胞增殖变慢,最终产生无大核的后代细胞. 敲减RCC1导致了多小核的产生. 结果表明,RCC1参与调控了四膜虫细胞核的分裂, RCC1的正常表达对核分裂以及细胞增殖起到重要的调控作用.     

嗜热四膜虫染色体浓缩调节因子(RCC1)的定位及功能

真核细胞中染色体浓缩调节因子(regulator of chromosome condensation 1,RCC1)是RanGTPase唯一的鸟嘌呤核苷酸交换因子.染色质结合的RCC1和RanGTPase相互作用,催化细胞核内RanGDP向RanGTP的转化,进而调控了核质间的定向运送、有丝分裂期纺锤体的组装以及核膜的形成.本实验从原生生物嗜热四膜虫大核基因组中鉴定了1个新的RCC1(TTHERM_00530380)基因.该基因全长2 541 bp,包含2个内含子序列,开放阅读框为2 181 bp,编码726个氨基酸.实时荧光定量PCR表明,RCC1在四膜虫营养生长、饥饿以及有性生殖时期都有表达,且在有性生殖转录水平达到最高.免疫荧光定位分析表明,HA-RCC1在营养生长和饥饿时期,定位于大核和小核中;在有性生殖时期,定位于亲本大核、减数分裂的小核、新生成的大核和凋亡的大核中.过表达RCC1导致大核的无丝分裂异常,细胞增殖变慢,最终产生无大核的后代细胞.敲减RCC1导致了多小核的产生.结果表明,RCC1参与调控了四膜虫细胞核的分裂,RCC1的正常表达对核分裂以及细胞增殖起到重要的调控作用.     

嗜热四膜虫Ran结合蛋白1的表达对大小核分裂的影响

Ran是细胞内的一种具有GTP酶活性的功能蛋白,可以调节染色体稳定性、细胞核组建以及核质运输等多种细胞进程．Ran结合蛋白1（Ran-binding protein 1, Rbp1p ）是Ran的必要调控因子,促进Ran-GTP水解为Ran-GDP．本研究从嗜热四膜虫大核基因组中鉴定出1个保守的Ran结合蛋白基因RBP1(TTHERM_00158040, http://www.ciliate.org)．实时荧光定量PCR表明,RBP1在四膜虫营养生长和有性生殖过程中都有表达,且在有性生殖过程中表达水平提高．免疫荧光定位表明,在营养 生长期Rbp1p定位于细胞质中．过表达RBP1或敲减RBP1后,细胞生长速率下降,大核的无丝分裂异常,细胞分裂末期产生了无大核的异常细胞,同时过表达RBP1导致了多小核的产生．结果表明,Rbp1p影响四膜虫细胞核的分裂进程,它的正常表达对细胞增殖过程起到重要的调节作用．     

自噬相关蛋白Atg4.1过表达促进嗜热四膜虫亲本大核程序化降解

细胞核自噬在真核生物进化过程中具有重要作用,然而不同生物中的自噬分子调控机制并不完全清楚。嗜热四膜虫有性生殖过程中亲本大核的程序化降解是一种独特的细胞核选择性自噬。该研究从嗜热四膜虫中鉴定出一种自噬相关基因Tt ATG4.1(TTHERM_00526270),编码677个氨基酸。Tt ATG4.1在营养生长期和饥饿期不表达,在有性生殖期2 h特异表达,亲本大核开始降解的anlagen时期表达量最高。通过同源重组构建获得MTT1启动子调控表达的ATG4.1突变株,免疫荧光定位显示, Atg4.1定位在细胞质和降解的亲本大核上。过量表达Atg4.1导致anlagen时期亲本大核未能正常凝缩,且细胞核膨大。通过自噬体和溶酶体荧光探针标记发现过量表达Atg4.1不影响亲本大核的酸化,但相比于野生型细胞,过表达Atg4.1细胞株中,亲本大核的降解更快。研究表明自噬相关蛋白Atg4.1参与调控嗜热四膜虫有性生殖中亲本大核程序化降解。     

抗沉默因子Asf1调控嗜热四膜虫细胞核的稳定性

组蛋白H3/H4的分子伴侣Asf1(anti-silencing factor 1),参与依赖DNA复制及不依赖DNA复制的核小体装配,同时参与转录调控、基因沉默以及DNA损伤修复等过程. 在不同生物中,Asf1具有功能的保守性和多样性．嗜热四膜虫ASF1（TTHERM_00442300）基因编码的蛋白质含有保守的N端结构域和酸性的C端结构域．N端结构域同源序列进化树分析表明,Asf1进化与物种进化一致．实时荧光定量PCR表明,ASF1在四膜虫营养生长、饥饿及有性生殖时期均有表达,且在有性生殖4～6 h转录水平达到最高．免疫荧光定位分析表明,HA-Asf1在营养生长时期以及有性生长时期定位于功能大核和小核中,而在凋亡的大核中信号消失．过表达ASF1导致大核及小核变大,抑制细胞增殖．敲减ASF1后会导致大核形态异常,小核缺失．结果表明,ASF1表达对细胞核的形态和结构维持发挥重要的调控作用．     

错配修复蛋白Tmlh1维持嗜热四膜虫细胞核的稳定性

DNA错配修复(DNA mismatch repair,MMR)蛋白Mlh1和其它因子形成多种不同的复合物,在DNA复制后的MMR途径和减数分裂DNA重组中发挥重要作用。然而对Mlh1的功能并不完全清楚,进一步分析Mlh1在不同进化地位生物中的功能具有重要意义。嗜热四膜虫(Tetrahymena thermophila)含有不同的错配修复复合物,基因表达谱分析发现,MutL复合物中的TMLH1(TTHERM_00127000)在营养生长期和饥饿期低水平表达,在有性生殖减数分裂期表达水平显著上调。免疫荧光定位显示营养生长期,Tmlh1定位于生殖系小核和转录活跃的大核;有性生殖期,定位于功能性小核和亲本大核,但在凋亡的大核和小核中消失。在减数分裂和有丝分裂时期,Tmlh1和α-微管蛋白(α-tubulin)存在共定位;而有性生殖后期,Tmlh1与异染色质蛋白Pdd1共定位于DNA删除的异染色结构域。TMLH1敲除细胞增殖速率降低,DNA损伤修复抑制,导致有性生殖细胞配对率降低和微核形成。1 mmol/L甲基甲磺酸甲酯(methy methanesulfonate, MMS)处理下,ΔTMLH1细胞传代时间增加了4.53%±0.35%,而野生型细胞传代时间增加了0.60%±0.14%。TMLH1敲除突变细胞株小核上呈现强烈的γ-H2A.X的荧光信号。免疫共沉淀和蛋白质谱分析发现,Tmlh1同微管蛋白、错配修复因子MutS、同源重组修复关键因子Rad51,非同源末端修复因子Ku80因子等存在相互作用。这些结果表明,嗜热四膜虫错配修复蛋白Tmlh1通过多种途径参与DNA修复和基因组重排,从而维持四膜虫生长发育和有性生殖过程中细胞核的稳定性。     

嗜热四膜虫胱硫醚γ-裂解酶Cgl1的表达、定位及功能分析

含硫氨基酸在不同的生物体中具有重要调节功能,转硫途径相关酶促进半胱氨酸的生成和硫化氢产生。本研究从嗜热四膜虫中鉴定一种胱硫醚γ-裂解酶（cystathionine γ-lyase 1,CGL1,TTHERM_00052400）基因。CGL1在营养生长期高水平表达,而在饥饿阶段和有性生殖期,维持在较低的表达水平。通过密码子优化,人工合成CGL1基因,构建重组表达质粒pGEX-CGL1,转化大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)。E.coli/pGEX-CGL1表达重组蛋白质GST-Cgl1,并通过亲和层析获得纯化。GST-Cgl1裂解胱硫醚产生半胱氨酸,也具有裂解半胱氨酸和同型半胱氨酸产生H2S的活性。进一步构建重组质粒pNEO4-3HA-CGL1和pSMC1hpNEO-CGL1,转化四膜虫细胞,获得带有HA标签和干扰CGL1的突变体细胞株。免疫荧光定位表明,HA-Cgl1生长期定位在亲本大核,饥饿期定位在细胞质,有性生殖前期定位在亲本大核,而在后期定位在胞质中。CGL1干扰的突变体细胞株在有性生殖过程中不能形成合子核,发育中的小核异常降解,产生仅有大核的异常单细胞。结果表明,嗜热四膜虫含有进化中保守的胱硫醚γ-裂解酶Cgl1。Cgl1具有产生和裂解半胱氨酸的活性。Cgl1定位在细胞质和细胞核中,参与了有性生殖过程细胞核的发育。     

嗜热四膜虫δ微管蛋白基因的克隆、鉴定及细胞定位

微管蛋白(tubulin)在细胞的结构和功能中发挥着重要作用, α微管蛋白和 β微管蛋白是组成微管的主要因子,γ微管蛋白促使α和β微管蛋白二聚体组装为微管结构. 然而, 4种新的微管蛋白δ-,ε-,ζ-, 和η- tubulin在细胞中的功能并不完全清楚. 本研究从嗜热四膜虫大核基因组数据库中鉴定了一种新的编码δ微管蛋白基因（Tetrahymena delta tubulin 1, TDT1, TTHERM_00335970, http://www. ciliate. org）, TDT1基因转录产生1 326 bp和 1 363 bp两种不同的转录本, 1 326 bp的转录本编码441个氨基酸的多肽; 而1 363 bp的转录本含有37 bp未剪切的内含子序列, 从而导致开发读框发生移码突变现象. 实时荧光定量PCR结果表明, TDT1基因在四膜虫细胞营养生长和有性生殖过程中都有表达, 且在有性生殖过程中的表达显著上调. 免疫荧光定位表明, TDT1蛋白不仅定位于四膜虫基体和有性生殖期conjugation junction结构, 而且在四膜虫的大核和小核中也有定位. TDT1基因敲除发现,该基因不能通过表型分配完全被巴龙霉素抗性基因替代, 结果表明, TDT1蛋白在四膜虫细胞中可能具有多种不同的功能, 它的正常表达对四膜虫细胞的生存是必需的.     

Subcellular localization and role of Ran1 in Tetrahymena thermophila amitotic macronucleus

Amitosis, a direct method of cell division is common in ciliated protozoan, fungi and some animal and plant cells. During amitosis, intranuclear microtubules are reorganized into specified arrays which assist in separation of nucleus, despite lack of a bipolar spindle. However, the regulation of amitosis is not understood. Here, we focused on the localization and role of mitotic spindle assembly regulator: Ran GTPase (Ran1) in macronuclear amitosis in binucleated protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila. HA-tagged Ran1 was localized in the macronucleus throughout the cell cycle of Tetrahymena during vegetative growth, and the accessory factor binding domains of Ran1 contributed to its macronuclear localization. Incomplete somatic knockout of RAN1 resulted in aberrant intramacronuclear microtubule array formation, missegregation of macronuclear chromosomes and ultimately blocked macronuclei proliferation. When the Ran1 cycle was perturbed by overexpression of Ran1T25N (GDP-bound Ran1-mimetic) or Ran1Q70L (GTP-bound Ran1-mimetic), intramacronuclear microtubule assembly was inhibited or multi-micronucleate cells formed. These results suggest that Ran GTPase pathway is involved in assembly of a specialized intramacronuclear microtubule network and coordinates amitotic progression in Tetrahymena.     

SUMO-1 targets RanGAP1 to kinetochores and mitotic spindles

RanGAP1 was the first documented substrate for conjugation with the ubiquitin-like protein SUMO-1. However, the functional significance of this conjugation has not been fully clarified. We sought to examine RanGAP1 behavior during mitosis. We found that RanGAP1 associates with mitotic spindles and that it is particularly concentrated at foci near kinetochores. Association with kinetochores appeared soon after nuclear envelope breakdown and persisted until late anaphase, but it was lost coincident with nuclear envelope assembly in telophase. A mutant RanGAP1 protein lacking the capacity to be conjugated to SUMO-1 no longer associated with spindles, indicating that conjugation was essential for RanGAP1's mitotic localization. RanBP2, a nuclear pore protein that binds SUMO-1-conjugated RanGAP1 during interphase, colocalized with RanGAP1 on spindles, suggesting that a complex between these two proteins may be involved in mitotic targeting of RanGAP1. This report shows for the first time that SUMO-1 conjugation is required for mitotic localization of RanGAP1, and suggests that a major role of SUMO-1 conjugation to RanGAP1 may be the spatial regulation of the Ran pathway during mitosis.     

过表达周期蛋白Cyc28影响四膜虫的有性生殖进程

真核生物的细胞周期通过连续的激活和失活特定的周期蛋白/周期蛋白依赖性激酶复合物活性进行调控。嗜热四膜虫含有34种周期蛋白,有性生殖期特异表达的周期蛋白Cyc2和Cyc17在四膜虫小核减数分裂中发挥重要功能。本研究从嗜热四膜虫中鉴定出一种新的周期蛋白CYC28 (TTHERM_00082190)基因,预测编码266个氨基酸。实时荧光定量PCR表明,CYC28在有性生殖时期特异表达,且在4 h表达水平最高。通过同源重组构建获得MTT1启动子调控下的HA-CYC28突变体细胞。免疫荧光定位表明,HA-Cyc28定位在细胞质和凋亡的亲本大核中。分别构建CYC28敲除突变株和RNA干扰细胞株,对CYC28敲减突变体细胞的分析发现,营养生长和有性生殖期突变细胞发育正常。然而,过表达株Cyc28突变体引起原核染色体排列异常,原核不能完成有丝分裂形成配子核,有性生殖进程终止。结果表明,Cyc28参与细胞的有性生殖进程,它的正常表达和降解对原核有丝分裂的完成是必需的。     

A novel ubiquitin-like modification modulates the partitioning of the Ran-GTPase-activating protein RanGAP1 between the cytosol and the nuclear pore complex

Ran is a nuclear Ras-like GTPase that is required for the bidirectional transport of proteins and ribnucleoproteins across the nuclear pore complex (NPC). A key regulator of the Ran GTP/GDP cycle is the 70-kD Ran-GTPase-activating protein RanGAP1. Here, we report the identification and localization of a novel form of RanGAP1. Using peptide sequence analysis and specific mAbs, RanGAP1 was found to be modified by conjugation to a ubiquitin-like protein. Immunoblot analysis and immunolocalization by light and EM demonstrated that the 70-kD unmodified from of RanGAP1 is exclusively cytoplasmic, whereas the 90-kD modified form of RanGAP1 is associated with the cytoplasmic fibers of the NPC. The modified form of RanGAP1 also appeared to associated with the mitotic spindle apparatus during mitosis. These findings have specific implications for Ran function and broad implications for protein regulation by ubiquitin-like modifications. Moreover, the variety and function of ubiquitin-like protein modifications in the cell may be more diverse than previously realized.     

MYCBP2 Is a Guanosine Exchange Factor for Ran Protein and Determines Its Localization in Neurons of Dorsal Root Ganglia

The small GTPase Ran coordinates retrograde axonal transport in neurons, spindle assembly during mitosis, and the nucleo-cytoplasmic transport of mRNA. Its localization is tightly regulated by the GTPase-activating protein RanGAP1 and the nuclear guanosine exchange factor (GEF) RCC1. We show that loss of the neuronal E3 ubiquitin ligase MYCBP2 caused the up-regulation of Ran and RanGAP1 in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) under basal conditions and during inflammatory hyperalgesia. SUMOylated RanGAP1 physically interacted with MYCBP2 and inhibited its E3 ubiquitin ligase activity. Stimulation of neurons induced a RanGAP1-dependent translocation of MYCBP2 to the nucleus. In the nucleus of DRG neurons MYCBP2 co-localized with Ran and facilitated through its RCC1-like domain the GDP/GTP exchange of Ran. In accordance with the necessity of a GEF to promote GTP-binding and nuclear export of Ran, the nuclear localization of Ran was strongly increased in MYCBP2-deficient DRGs. The finding that other GEFs for Ran besides RCC1 exist gives new insights in the complexity of the regulation of the Ran signaling pathway.     

嗜热四膜虫Tcd1蛋白功能结构域的突变分析

有性生殖过程特异表达的Tcd1在四膜虫大核基因组重排和修复中起到重要调节作用, Tcd1含有进化中保守的chromodomain(CD)结构域以及chromo shadow domain (CSD)结构域, 然而不同结构域的具体功能并不清楚。本研究首先鉴定了TCD1基因仅含有1个CD结构域的选择性剪切本TCD1β,免疫荧光定位表明,Tcd1β定位在胞质中。定点突变Tcd1中CD1内159位色氨酸为丙氨酸, Tcd1W159A点状定位在亲本大核,然后转移到新发育的大核上围绕核膜致密分布,发育的晚期逐步消失。进一步突变CD2中437位的色氨酸为丙氨酸后,Tcd1W159AW437A在早期亲本大核形成异常的环状分布, 而在新发育大核中形成点状分布。截短CSD结构域C端35个氨基酸后, Tcd1Δ35在亲本大核和新大核上的定位不受影响。 然而,截短CSD结构域C端的53个氨基酸后, Tcd1Δ53定位在细胞质中, 无核内定位。结果表明, Tcd1中的CD1和CD2结构域决定了Tcd1蛋白在核内的分布, CSD结构域决定了Tcd1入核转运, Tcd1的3个功能结构域共同决定了Tcd1在四膜虫中的功能定位。