血管紧张素Ⅱ对模拟缺血心室肌细胞L-型钙通道的影响

实验研究了血管紧张素II（AngⅡ)对模拟缺血心室肌细胞L－型钙离子通道的作用,用胶原酶酶解法急性分离豚鼠心室肌细胞,以全细胞膜片钳方法记录心室肌细胞的L－型钙电流（ICa L.)。采用低氧,无糖,高乳酸和酸中毒综合方式模拟缺血液灌流,造成心室肌细胞的模拟缺血,并在缺血的基础上继续用含100mmol/A AngⅡ灌流细胞,观察AngⅡ对模拟缺血心室肌细胞钙离子通道的影响,实验结果显示,模拟缺血时ICa.L峰值电流明显减小,最大激活电压为0mV,AngⅡ能抵抗模拟缺血对ICa,L的抑制效应,使ICa,L峰值电流增大,并使最大激活电压左移至－10mV。     

蛋白激酶A和蛋白激酶C对豚鼠心肌细胞延迟整流钾电流的作用

目的 :研究蛋白激酶A和蛋白激酶C对豚鼠心室肌细胞延迟整流钾电流 (Ik)的影响。方法 :采用电极内液浓度差扩散法进行细胞内给药 ,利用全细胞膜片箝技术测定单细胞Ik。结果 :cAMP15 0 μmol/L使Ik及Ik ,tail(pA/pF)从 13.7± 2 .1和 6 .1± 0 .3增至 18.5± 3.3和 6 .4± 2 .1(P <0 .0 1,n =6 ) ;8 CPT cAMP15 0 μmol/L使电流 (pA/pF)从 11.4± 1.8及 5 .3± 0 .6增至 17.9± 4 .0和 6 .2± 1.3,PKA的选择性抑制剂 6 2 2 1.0 μmol/L的可逆转二者的作用。cAMP使Ik的激活曲线左移 ,半激活电压 (V1/ 2 )从 2 3.3mV移至 18.7mV ,激活曲线斜率 (k)在用药前后变化较小。 10 μmol/LPMA可以分别使Ik和Ik ,tial(pA/pF)从 12 .9± 1.8和 5 .0± 1.7升至 2 3.7± 2 .8和 7.5±1.1。PMA使I V曲线幅值增加 ,并随去极化电压的升高其作用加强 ,同时PMA使通道的激活曲线k从 15 .3mV升到 2 5 .6mV ,但对V1/ 2 基本无影响。结论 :蛋白激酶A和蛋白激酶C均可增加豚鼠心肌细胞Ik,但二者作用特点有所不同     

银杏苦内酯B对豚鼠模拟缺血心室肌细胞L-型钙电流及胞内游离钙的影响

应用全细胞膜片钳及激光共聚焦技术 ,研究银杏苦内酯B(ginkgolideB ,GB)对豚鼠心室肌细胞L 型钙电流及胞内游离钙的作用 ,并探讨GB心肌保护作用的机制。实验结果显示 ,在指令电压为 0mV时 ,GB对生理状态下豚鼠心室肌细胞L 型钙电流无明显作用。在模拟缺血状态下 ,L 型钙峰值电流减小 3 7 71% ,但加入 1μmol/LGB后 ,可逆转缺血引起的L 型钙电流的降低 ,与缺血对照组比较 ,有显著性差异 (P <0 0 5 )。 1μmol/LGB能使由于模拟缺血而上移的L 型钙电流 电压曲线回复正常。在生理状态下 ,0 1、1、10mol/LGB分别使心肌细胞内游离钙降低 10 5 8%(n =12 )、17 2 7% (n =12 )、16 3 5 % (n =10 ) ,与对照组相比有非常显著性差异。模拟缺血液灌流 12min时 ,细胞内游离钙浓度增加 2 0 15 % ,在模拟缺血液中分别加入 1μmol/Lnifedipine或 5mmol/LNiCl2 ,结果显示 :模拟缺血液灌流 12min ,与正常对照组相比细胞内钙分别增加 18 18% (P >0 0 5 )与 11% (P <0 0 5 )。在模拟缺血液中加入1mol/LGB灌流 12min时细胞内钙仅增加 9 60 % (n =12 ,P <0 0 0 1) ,与缺血对照组相比有显著性差异 (P <0 0 5 )。结果表明 ,GB可逆转模拟缺血造成L 型钙电流的降低 ,同时可部分减轻由于缺血所造成的细胞内钙的超载     

小剂量辣椒素对豚鼠心室肌细胞L-型钙电流的影响

应用全细胞膜片钳技术研究低浓度辣椒素(capsaicin,CAP)对单个豚鼠心室肌细胞L-型钙电流的影响及其作用机制.CAP(1～25 nmol/L)可浓度依赖性增加电压依赖性的ICa-L的峰值并下移I-V曲线.CAPl,10,25 nmol/L使ICa-L最大峰值分别由-9.67±0.7pA/pF增至-10.21±0.8pA/pF(P＞0.05),-11.37±0.8pA/pF和-12.84±0.9pA/pF(P＜0.05).CAP25nmol/L可明显使稳态激活曲线左移,激活中点电压(V0.5)由-20.76±2.0mV变至-26.71±3.0mV(P＜0.05),表明低浓度CAP改变了钙通道激活的电压依赖性.CAP25nmol/L对电压依赖性稳态失活曲线和ICa-L从失活状态下复活过程无明显影响.辣椒素受体(VR1)阻断剂钌红(RR,10μmol/L)可阻断低浓度辣椒素的效应.以上结果表明,低浓度辣椒素使钙通道稳态激活曲线左移,增加ICa-L,这一效应可能由VRl介导.     

三羟异黄酮对豚鼠心室肌细胞L-型钙通道电流的影响

本实验用全细胞膜片钳技术观察三羟异黄酮(genistein,GST)对豚鼠心室肌细胞L-钙通道电流(ICa、L)的影响。结果如下:(1)GST(10、50、100 μmol/L)可浓度依赖性地降低ICa,L(n=6,P<0.01)。GST的非活性结构类似物daidzein(100μmol/L),在同一浓度范围对ICa,L没有影响(n=5,P>0.05)。(2)GST使I-V曲线上移,但对ICa,L的电压依赖特征和最大激活电压无明显影响。(3)GST对ICa,L的激活动力学特性也无影响,但可使钙电流稳态失活曲线左移。V0.5从对照的-28.6±0.6 mV变为-32.8±1.1mV,κ值从对照的5.8±0.5 mV升至6.5±0.9 mV(n=6,P<0.05)。(4)GST明显使复活曲线右移,从而使ICa,L从失活状态下恢复明显减慢(n=7,P<0.01)。(5)酪氨酸磷酸酶抑制剂正钒酸钠(1 mmol/L)显著对抗GST引起的ICa,L抑制效应(n=6,P<0.01)。根据以上结果得出的结论是:GST抑制ICa,L加速钙通道失活和钙通道在失活状态下恢复减慢;GST对ICa,L的这种抑制作用与蛋白酪氨酸激酶(PTK)抑制有关。     

甲状腺素心肌病大鼠血流动力学和心肌钠、钙电流的变化

本文旨在研究L-甲状腺素(L-thyroxine,L-thy)所致的大鼠心肌病模型上血流动力学及心室肌细胞钠电流(INa)、L-钙通道电流(ICa-L)的变化。实验大鼠随机分成两组:心肌病组和对照组。心肌病组以0.5mg/kg腹腔注射L-thy,连续注射10d,建模成功后测定血流动力学变化,然后急性酶解法分离心肌细胞,应用全细胞膜片钳技术记录心肌细胞INa和ICa-L。结果显示:(1)与对照组相比,心肌病组大鼠左心室收缩压(leftventricular systolic pressure,LVSP)、左心室发展压(left ventricular developed pressure,LVDP)和左心室舒张期室内压最大下降速率(-dp/dtmax)均显著降低(P0.01),左心室收缩期室内压最大上升速率(+dp/dtmax)也表现为降低(P0.05),左心室舒张末期压(left ventricular end-diastolic pressure,LVEDP)显著升高(P0.01);(2)与对照组相比,在去极化电位为-30mV时,心肌病组大鼠心肌细胞INa电流密度由(-21.1±6.3)pA/pF增大至(-26.2±3.2)pA/pF(n=12,P0.01),INa的激活曲线左移,失活曲线左移,去失活曲线右移;(3)与对照组相比,在去极化电位为-10mV时,心肌病组大鼠心肌细胞ICa-L电流密度由(-5.4±0.6)pA/pF增至(-7.9±0.8)pA/pF(n=12,P0.01),ICa-L的激活曲线左移,失活曲线左移,去失活曲线左移。以上结果表明,甲状腺素心肌病模型心功能与心力衰竭相似,其INa和ICa-L功能明显增强,尤其是ICa-L,提示在INa和ICa-L功能异常增强的心肌病治疗中若使用的钙通道拮抗剂带有降低心肌对Na+通透性的药物效果应更佳。     

心房肌胞内钙浓度变化对心房颤动患者小电导钙激活钾通道电流的影响

目的：SK通道存在于心肌细胞上,其中SK2亚型主要表达在心房。SK2通道对胞内游离钙离子高度敏感,可快速将钙离子浓度的变化转换成细胞膜电位变化。本实验应用穿孔膜片钳技术记录人心肌细胞SK2电流,观察心房肌细胞SK2电流在窦性患者和心房颤动患者之间的差别,以及电极液中不同的钙浓度对两组细胞SK2电流的影响。方法：将接受体外循环手术的患者分为两组：心房颤动组和窦性心律组。以心房肌细胞为研究对象,用穿孔膜片钳技术记录人心肌细胞电流,观察窦性组与房颤组SK2通道电流的差异以及两组细胞SK2电流对电极液中钙敏感性的不同。结果：在全细胞穿孔膜片钳模式下,电极液中游离钙离子浓度为5×10-7mol/L时,记录到房颤组SK2通道电流明显大于窦性组,尤其是在超极化水平。膜电位在-130 mV时,窦性组与房颤组的SK2通道电流密度分别为（-2.92±0.35）pA/pF（n=6）,（-6.83±0.19）pA/pF（n=3,P〈0.05）。在电极液游离钙离子浓度分别为0 mol/L、5×10-7mol/L、10-6mol/L,膜电位为-130 mV时,窦性组SK2通道电流密度分别为（-1.43±0.33）pA/pF（n=7）,（-2.92±0.35）pA/pF（n=6）,（-10.11±2.15）pA/pF（n=8,P〈0.05）;房颤组SK2通道电流密度分别为（-2.17±0.40）pA/pF（n=4）（-6.83±0.19）pA/pF（n=3）（-14.47±2.89）pA/pF（n=4）（P〈0.05）。结论：人心房肌细胞SK2通道具有电压不敏感、内向整流、apamin敏感的特性。电极液中钙浓度相同的情况下,房颤组的SK2电流密度明显大于窦性组,SK2通道电流对钙离子的敏感性高于窦性组,提示SK2通道钙敏感性增加可能与心房颤动的发生发展密切相关。     

八肽胆囊收缩素激活钙离子通道和酪氨酸激酶诱导豚鼠心肌细胞内的游离钙增高

探讨八肽胆囊收缩素(CCK-8)对豚鼠单个心肌细胞内游离钙浓度([Ca2+]i的影响及其信号转导机制.Fluo 3-AM标记酶消化法分离的单个心室肌细胞,用激光共聚焦显微镜测定细胞内[Ca2+]i的浓度.[Ca2+]i的变化用荧光强度(Fi)和相对荧光强度(Fi/F0%)表示.实验结果如下(1)在含Ca2+1.0 mmol/L的Tyrode's液中,CCK-8(1～104pmoVL)均可引起[Ca2+]i快速显著上升(P＜0.01).(2)用钙离子鳌合剂EGTA(3 mmol/L)和钙离子通道阻断剂nisoldipine(0.5μmol/L)预孵育心肌细胞5 min,CCK-8(102pmol/L)仅可引起[Ca2+]i缓慢轻度上升(P＜0.01).(3)用非选择性CCK受体拮抗剂丙谷胺(proglumide 6μmo1/L)或酪氨酸激酶抑制剂genistein(1 μmol/L)预孵育心肌细胞5 min,则完全抑制CCK-8诱导的[Ca2+]i升高(P＜0.01).CCK-8可通过激活其受体控制的Ca2+通道,引起Ca2+内流,诱导细胞内Ca2+释放,引起豚鼠单个心肌细胞内[Ca2+]i上升,此作用可能由酪氨酸激酶介导.     

氨甲酰胆碱增加大鼠心室肌细胞收缩机制的初步研究

目的:本文研究非选择性M受体激动剂氨甲酰胆碱(Cch)对心肌细胞收缩的作用,并同时观察L-型钙流,探讨其机制.方法:以分离大鼠的单个心室肌细胞为对象,采用膜片钳和单细胞收缩测量技术,在35℃恒温,细胞外钙离子浓度1.8 mmol/L,0.2 Hz,1.0 Hz刺激下测量细胞收缩幅度和ICa(L)、INa/Ca.结果:①大鼠心肌细胞收缩与刺激频率呈负相关;②选择△L0.2 Hz/△L1.0 Hz≥1.25(n=6)的细胞给予1.0 Hz的刺激,100 μmol/L Cch增加大鼠心室肌细胞收缩28%.③ Cch作用能被非选择性M受体阻滞剂阿托品阻滞,选择性M1受体激动剂MCN-A-343 100 μmol/L对细胞收缩无影响.④ 100 μmol/L Cch对ICa(L)无影响,但增加从 10 mV复极到-40 mV所产生的晚期尾电流,提示INa/Ca加大.结论:Cch能加强大鼠心室肌细胞收缩,它的作用由M2受体介导,其机制可能是通过加强INa/Ca,增加肌质网(SR)内的钙内容和钙释放,导致细胞收缩加强,而非通过L-型钙流.     

西洛他唑对人心房肌细胞瞬间外向钾电流的影响

目的:观察西洛他唑对人心房肌细胞瞬间外向钾电流(Ito1)的影响,探讨该药抗心律失常作用的机制.方法:二步酶解法分离人单个右心房肌细胞,应用全细胞膜片钳技术记录人心房肌细胞Ito1.结果:在保持电位-50 mV和去极化脉冲为 50 mV条件下,30 μmol/L西洛他唑显著降低Ito1,使Ito1幅值由加药前(8.16±0.70)pA/pF降至(4.84±0.60)pA/pF(P<0.01).西洛他唑在1～50 μmol/L范围内呈浓度依赖性的抑制Ito1,1 μmol/L时即产生作用,50 μmol/L时达最大效应(降低51.09%±3.00%),IC50为(13.18±2.60)μmol/L.此外,该药对Ito1的电压依赖性激活和失活曲线以及恢复曲线均无显著影响.结论:本实验结果表明西洛他唑浓度依赖性地阻滞人心房肌细胞的Ito1.     

钙指示剂的发展及其研究现状

钙指示剂常被用于细胞及细胞器钙信号的检测,是钙信号转导研究中必不可少的工具.目前的钙指示剂分两大类,包括化学钙指示剂,如Fura-2、Indo-1、Fluo-4等,和基因编码的钙指示蛋白如D1ER、GCaMP、CEPIA1er等.随着技术的发展及研究需求的不断提升,各版本的钙指示剂也在不断更新.本文对已有的钙指示剂进行了系统地梳理,详细介绍了目前应用最为广泛的钙指示剂,总结了现有钙指示剂的优缺点,并对可优化提升的部分进行了展望,旨在为钙指示剂研究的进一步发展提供一些思路.     

Mode of action of proctolin on locust visceral muscle

Proctolin increases the frequency and amplitude of myogenic contractions and results in a sustained contraction of the oviducts of Locusta migratoria. The possible mode of action of proctolin receptors on this visceral muscle has been investigated. Calcium-free saline, containing either 20 mM magnesium ions or 100 μM EGTA, inhibited myogenic contractions, lowered basal tension, and abolished all the effects of proctolin following a 20 min incubation. These effects were reversible upon washing with normal saline. Similar results were obtained with normal saline containing 10 mM cobalt ions. Nifedipine at 50 μM lowered basal tension, abolished myogenic contractions, and reduced the proctolin-induced sustained contraction by 42-62% at 0.5 nM proctolin and by 33-37% at 5 nM proctolin. Similar results were obtained with 100 μM verapamil. Proctolin was still capable of eliciting considerable contractions (25-67% of controls) in preparations depolarized with 100 mM potassium saline. The removal of calcium from the high-potassium saline reversibly abolished the potassium-induced contraction and reversibly blocked the action of proctolin. Nifedipine was ineffective in blocking the action of proctolin in high-potassium saline. Neither cyclic AMP levels nor cyclic GMP levels of the lateral oviducts were elevated by proctolin in the presence of a phosphodiesterase inhibitor. The results indicate that proctolin mediates its effects via an influx of external calcium ions. This calcium appears to enter through two channels, a voltage-dependent channel and a receptor-operated channel. Cyclic nucleotides do not appear to be involved in the action of proctolin in this visceral muscle.     

Modulation of the voltage sensor of L-type Ca2+ channels by intracellular Ca2+

Both intracellular calcium and transmembrane voltage cause inactivation, or spontaneous closure, of L-type (CaV1.2) calcium channels. Here we show that long-lasting elevations of intracellular calcium to the concentrations that are expected to be near an open channel (>/=100 microM) completely and reversibly blocked calcium current through L-type channels. Although charge movements associated with the opening (ON) motion of the channel's voltage sensor were not altered by high calcium, the closing (OFF) transition was impeded. In two-pulse experiments, the blockade of calcium current and the reduction of gating charge movements available for the second pulse developed in parallel during calcium load. The effect depended steeply on voltage and occurred only after a third of the total gating charge had moved. Based on that, we conclude that the calcium binding site is located either in the channel's central cavity behind the voltage-dependent gate, or it is formed de novo during depolarization through voltage-dependent rearrangements just preceding the opening of the gate. The reduction of the OFF charge was due to the negative shift in the voltage dependence of charge movement, as previously observed for voltage-dependent inactivation. Elevation of intracellular calcium concentration from approximately 0.1 to 100-300 microM sped up the conversion of the gating charge into the negatively distributed mode 10-100-fold. Since the "IQ-AA" mutant with disabled calcium/calmodulin regulation of inactivation was affected by intracellular calcium similarly to the wild-type, calcium/calmodulin binding to the "IQ" motif apparently is not involved in the observed changes of voltage-dependent gating. Although calcium influx through the wild-type open channels does not cause a detectable negative shift in the voltage dependence of their charge movement, the shift was readily observable in the Delta1733 carboxyl terminus deletion mutant, which produces fewer nonconducting channels. We propose that the opening movement of the voltage sensor exposes a novel calcium binding site that mediates inactivation.     

Ganglioside Function in Calcium Homeostasis and Signaling

Ganglioside function in eukaryotic cells encompasses a variety of modulatory interactions related to both development and mature cellular behavior. In relation to the nervous system this includes induction of neurite outgrowth and trophic/neuroprotective phenomena; more generally this applies to ganglioside effects on receptor function, adhesion reactions, and signal transduction mechanisms in neural and extraneural systems. Underlying many of these trophic effects are ganglioside-induced changes in cellular calcium, accomplished through modulation of Ca²⁺ influx channels, Ca²⁺ exchange proteins, and various Ca²⁺-dependent enzymes that are altered through association with gangliosides. A clear distinction needs to be drawn between intrinsic functions of gangliosides as naturally expressed by the cell and activities created by application of exogenous ganglioside(s) that may or may not reflect natural function. This review attempts to summarize findings in this area and point to possible future directions of research.     

Heparin inhibits the reconstituted plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase from porcine brain synaptosome

Heparin has been shown to be involved in the regulation of cellular Ca(2+) by binding to many proteins with high affinity. Here we examined the effects of heparin on the plasma membrane Ca(2+)-ATPase from porcine brain synaptosome. Our results showed that heparin dramatically inhibited the ATP hydrolysis and Ca(2+) uptake in the presence and absence of calmodulin. Together with controlled proteolysis by trypsin, we concluded that the calmodulin-binding domain of the plasma membrane Ca(2+)-ATPase was less important for the heparin inhibition. Excess phosphatidylserine was able to eliminate the heparin inhibition. We observed that Ca(2+) affinity kept no obvious changes, but the ATP affinity of plasma membrane Ca(2+)-ATPase was apparently decreased in the presence of heparin. Our results indicated that heparin had little effects on ATP or Ca(2+) binding sites of the enzyme.     

Tissue-Specific Mitochondrial Decoding of Cytoplasmic Ca2+ Signals Is Controlled by the Stoichiometry of MICU1/2 and MCU

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Light Dependence of Calcium and Membrane Potential Measured in Blowfly Photoreceptors In Vivo

Light adaptation in insect photoreceptors is caused by an increase in the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration. To better understand this process, we measured the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration in vivo as a function of adapting light intensity in the white-eyed blowfly mutant chalky. We developed a technique to measure the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration under conditions as natural as possible. The calcium indicator dyes Oregon Green 1, 2, or 5N (Molecular Probes, Inc., Eugene, OR) were iontophoretically injected via an intracellular electrode into a photoreceptor cell in the intact eye; the same electrode was also used to measure the membrane potential. The blue-induced green fluorescence of these dyes could be monitored by making use of the optics of the facet lens and the rhabdomere waveguide. The use of the different Ca²⁺-sensitive dyes that possess different affinities for Ca²⁺ allowed the quantitative determination of the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration in the steady state. Determining the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration as a function of the adapting light intensity shows that the Ca²⁺ concentration is regulated in a graded fashion over the whole dynamic range where a photoreceptor cell can respond to light. When a photoreceptor is adapted to bright light, the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration reaches stable values higher than 10 μM. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that the logarithm of the increase in cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration is linear with the logarithm of the light intensity. From the estimated values of the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration, we conclude that the Ca²⁺-buffering capacity is limited. The percentage of the Ca²⁺ influx that is buffered gradually decreases with increasing Ca²⁺ concentrations; at cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration levels above 10 μM, buffering becomes minimal.     

天津盐渍化生境54种植物钙晶体与钙组分特征

植物钙包括游离态的Ca²⁺和结合态易溶、微溶和难溶于水的钙盐,而难溶于水的钙盐常会形成钙晶体.为了解盐渍化生境中不同生长型植物体内的钙状况,本文对天津市54种植物进行了钙晶体的镜检和钙组分的测定.结果表明： 在盐渍化生境中的54种植物体内,有38种植物体内镜检到较多的钙晶体,其中37种植物体内为以簇晶和方晶为主的草酸钙晶体,只在桑科的无花果叶片中观察到内含碳酸钙晶体的钟乳体.按生长型统计,落叶乔、灌木体内的草酸钙晶体较多,藤本植物体内的草酸钙晶体较少,而草本植物和常绿乔木体内未镜检到草酸钙晶体.同时,从乔木、灌木、藤本到草本,植物体内盐酸溶性钙含量逐渐减少而水溶性钙含量逐渐增多,且草本植物体内的水溶性钙含量显著高于乔木和灌木.在盐渍化生境中,植物体内的钙晶体和钙组分因生长型不同而有所差异,草酸钙在落叶乔、灌木抵御盐分胁迫中发挥着重要作用.     

Plasma membrane calcium pump and sodium-calcium exchanger in maintenance and control of calcium concentrations in platelets

The purpose of this research was to elucidate the activity of the mechanisms responsible for control of cytosolic calcium concentration in platelets by modeling the time-course of the concentration changing in response to discharge of the intracellular stores or store-operated calcium entry (SOCE). The parameters estimated as a result of model fitting to experimental data are related to physiological or pathological state of the cells. It has been shown that: (a) the time-course is determined by the passive calcium fluxes and activities of the corresponding mechanisms; (b) the decline in the concentration (after its rise) develops due to activity of plasma membrane calcium ATPase (PMCA) both in the case of discharge of the stores of platelets contained in calcium-free medium and in the case of SOCE; (c) impulsive extrusion of calcium in response to its sudden influx, presumably, is the main function of PMCA; (d) the function of sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX) is to extrude calcium excess by permanent counteracting its influx.     

Modeling the Calcium Signaling in Stomatal Guard Cells under the Action of Abscisic Acid

A theoretical model of calcium signaling is presented that simulates oscillations of cytoplasmic calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_cyt) in stomatal guard cells under the action of abscisic acid. The model is based on the kinetics of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive calcium channels of endoplasmic reticulum and cyclic ADP-ribose-sensitive calcium channels of the tonoplast. The operation of two energy-dependent pumps—the Ca²⁺-ATPase of the endoplasmic reticulum and the Ca²⁺/H⁺ antiporter of the tonoplast—is also included in the model. It is shown that the removal of excessive Ca²⁺ from the cytoplasm by the tonoplast Ca²⁺/H⁺ antiporter is the main factor accounting for generation of [Ca²⁺]_cyt oscillations at a wide range of ABA concentrations (0.01–1 M). The long period of [Ca²⁺]_cyt oscillations in plant cells is explained by a slow release from inhibition of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-gated calcium channels.