酚氧化酶及其酶原的研究进展(Ⅱ)——免疫学特性、细胞定位及其功能

酚氧化酶（Phenoloxidase,PO）又称为酪氨酸酶（tyrosinase,EC1．14．18．1）,是一种含铜的酶,能够催化单酚羟化成二酚（如多巴）,并把二酚氧化成醌;醌在非酶促条件下形成最终的反应产物黑色素。PO在脊椎动物和无脊椎动物中都广泛存在,而且被认为是一种参与免疫的重要因子。本文就酚氧化酶及其酶原的免疫学特性、细胞定位及其功能研究进展进行综述。     

植物多酚氧化酶的研究进展

多酚氧化酶(polyphenol oxidase,PPO)是一类普遍存在于植物、真菌和昆虫质体中,由核基因编码,能与铜相结合的金属蛋白酶.它能分别催化单酚羟基和二羟基酚氧化为O-二酚和O-醌.植物多酚氧化酶是许多果蔬等农产品酶促褐变的主要原因,同时它在植物的光合作用、抗病虫害、生长发育以及花色的形成中起一定作用.本文综述了植物多酚氧化酶在细胞学、分子遗传学及其生产应用等方面的研究进展.     

软体动物和甲壳动物酚氧化酶的研究进展

软体动物和甲壳动物的很多品种都是重要的经济养殖品种.随着养殖业集约化程度的提高,各种病害频繁发生,造成了巨大的经济损失.于是越来越多的人开始关注软体动物和甲壳动物的免疫防御系统,并对其进行研究.酚氧化酶(phenoloxidase,PO)是一种含铜的氧化酶,广泛存在于微生物、动物和植物体内.作为酚氧化酶原激活系统的重要一员,PO在无脊椎动物的先天免疫机制中起着重要的作用,有关其生物化学、免疫学和分子生物学特性的研究一直以来受到广泛关注,尤其在节肢动物中进展很快.作者对酚氧化酶在软体和甲壳动物中的功能、组织定位及表达、基因克隆和序列分析及其系统演化等几个方面的研究进展进行了综述.基因序列分析和系统进化树证据均表明,催化功能相同的软体动物酪氨酸酶与节肢动物PO的基因有较大差异.该结果对目前被广泛接受并使用的酪氨酸酶专门用于哺乳类,酚氧化酶专门用于无脊椎动物的分类法提出了挑战.因此作者建议,将酚氧化酶专门用于节肢动物,酪氨酸酶用于软体动物等非节肢动物和脊椎动物.     

植物多酚氧化酶的研究进展

多酚氧化酶(polyphenol oxidase, PPO)是一类普遍存在于植物、真菌和昆虫质体中,由核基因编码, 能与铜相结合的金属蛋白酶。它能分别催化单酚羟基和二羟基酚氧化为O-二酚和O-醌。植物多酚氧化酶是许多果蔬等农产品酶促褐变的主要原因, 同时它在植物的光合作用、抗病虫害、生长发育以及花色的形成中起一定作用。本文综述了植物多酚氧化酶在细胞学、分子遗传学及其生产应用等方面的研究进展。     

昆虫酚氧化酶原激活酶研究

昆虫酚氧化酶原激活酶(Prophenoloxidase activating proteinase,PAP)是酚氧化酶原激活过程中的一个关键酶,是昆虫先天性体液免疫体系的重要组成部分。外界的免疫刺激能够诱导级联反应上游的蛋白对酚氧化酶原激活酶的前体进行剪切激活,而激活后的酚氧化酶原激活酶能够将无活性的酚氧化酶原剪切激活为有活性的酚氧化酶并最终生成细胞毒素物质来消灭外源物。本文综述了昆虫酚氧化酶原激活酶的结构与特性及其在酚氧化酶原级联激活系统中的作用机制,并探讨了寄生蜂对寄主昆虫酚氧化酶原激活酶的调控。     

中国对虾（Penaeus chinensis）酚氧化酶的分离纯化及其部分生物化学性质

以中国对虾 (Penaeuschinensis)的血淋巴为材料 ,利用凝胶过滤和离子交换等方法 ,对酚氧化酶 (phe noloxidase ,E .C .1 .1 0 .3.1 )进行了分离纯化和生物化学性质研究。实验发现 ,酚氧化酶原 (prophenoloxidase)的分子量为 87.5kD左右 ,在实验操作过程中极易发生降解或自身降解 ,变成有活性的大小约 77kD的酚氧化酶 ,1 0g/LSDS可使该酶原全部被激活而成为有活性的酚氧化酶。以L 二羟苯丙氨酸 (L DOPA)为特异性底物对酚氧化酶活性进行研究发现 ,其最适pH值为 6 .0左右 ,最适温度为 4 0℃ ,Km 值约为 1 .99mmol/L。利用多种氧化酶抑制剂对酚氧化酶纯化样品的酶活性进行研究 ,发现抗坏血酸 (ascorbicacid)、半胱氨酸 (cysteine)和二硫苏糖醇(dithiothreitol)对酚氧化酶活性具有很强的抑制作用 ,硫脲 (thiourea)对酚氧化酶活性也具有较强的抑制作用 ,而酚氧化酶对苯甲酸 (benzoicacid)、柠檬酸 (citricacid)和亚硫酸钠 (sodiumsulfite)不敏感 ,而且该酶对酪氨酸等单酚还具有高特异性的酚氧化酶活性 ,表明它可能是一种酪氨酸酶型的酚氧化酶 ;此外 ,该酶对EDTA和金属离子非常敏感 ,其活性能被Cu2 强烈抑制 ,被Mg2 强烈激活 ,表明该酶很可能是一种金属酶 (metalloenzyme)     

昆虫体液免疫的分子生物学

昆虫是一类分布非常广泛的动物,在生态系统中占有重要地位。昆虫在长期的进化过程中,形成了自己独特的免疫系统。本文对昆虫体液免疫中三种重要的因子：抗菌肽(antimicrobial peptides,AMPs)、酚氧化酶(phenoloxidase,PO)和溶菌酶(lysozyme)在分子生物学方面的进展作了一综述,并对抗菌肽和酚氧化酶的作用方式及机理做了一概述。     

棉铃虫不同虫态及虫龄血淋巴中酚氧化酶活力的比较

分别测定了棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigeraHübner不同虫态及虫龄血清和血细胞中酚氧化酶(phenoloxidase,PO)的活力。结果显示血清和血细胞中都有酚氧化酶活性,且血细胞中高于血清中。不同虫态及虫龄的血清和血细胞中酚氧化酶活力有很大的不同,血清和血细胞中酚氧化酶活力变化规律一致。3龄幼虫酶活力最高,5龄幼虫最低。酶活力大小依次为:3龄幼虫>预蛹>4龄幼虫>蛹>5龄幼虫     

刚竹叶提取物对斜纹夜蛾酚氧化酶抑制作用研究

采用酶标仪法测定了刚竹叶提取物对斜纹夜蛾酚氧化酶(PO)活性的影响。结果表明:6种不同溶剂(极性大小:去离子水乙醇丙酮乙酸乙酯氯仿石油醚)获得的竹叶提取物均对PO表现为抑制作用(三氯甲烷提取物在0-300 mg/L范围内,对PO表现为激活作用),且随提取物浓度的升高,抑制作用有逐渐增强的趋势。丙酮提取物对PO的抑制效果最显著(IC50为550 mg/L),其次为乙酸乙酯提取物和乙醇提取物(IC50分别为575 mg/L和700 mg/L);丙酮提取物对斜纹夜蛾酚氧化酶的抑制效果属于可逆过程,抑制类型为非竞争性抑制,抑制常数Ki为158.2 mg/L。     

紫外分光光度计法与酶标仪微量法测定酚氧化酶蛋白含量及活力的比较

分别采用紫外分光光度计比色法与酶标仪微量法测定菜青虫Pieris rapae(L.)体内酚氧化酶蛋白含量和活力,以水杨醛缩对硝基苯胺为抑制剂,对2种方法的结果进行比较。结果表明,微量法和比色法在检测酚氧化酶(PO)蛋白含量、酶活力和抑制剂对PO抑制作用时结果无显著性差异。因此,微量法可以替代比色法,使用试剂量大大降低,重复性好,操作简单、快捷。     

An examination of proton translocation and energy conservation during heterotrophic nitrification

Whether selected heterotrophic nitrifiers, as do the autotrophs, conserve energy during the oxidation of their nitrogenous substrates was studied. The examination of proton translocation of four different bacterial nitrifiers capable of pyruvic oxime [(PO), CH3-C(NOH)-COOH] nitrification and by an NH4+ oxidizing Arthrobacter sp. was initiated. Three of the PO nitrifying bacteria, all pseudomonads, oxidize hydroxylamine (NH2OH) at a greater rate than PO and yielded only stoichiometric protons when NH2OH was the reductant. The fourth bacterium, Alcaligenes faecalis ATCC 8750, an adept PO oxidizer, does not appreciably oxidize NH2OH. The bacterium displayed----H+NH2OH ratios far less than if NH2OH was stoichiometrically converted to nitrite. When given NH4+, the Arthrobacter sp. yielded proton translocation patterns which were inconsistent with the metabolic data collected concerning NH4+ oxidation. Thus no data was collected which supported energy conservation via proton translocation by these heterotrophic nitrifiers.     

Dual effect of nitric oxide on phenoloxidase-mediated melanization

The study has demonstrated a dual effect of nitric oxide on phenoloxidase (PO)-mediated DOPA oxidation and melanization process. NO generated at low rates proportionally increased in PO-mediated DOPA oxidation. Competitive PO inhibitor, phenylthiourea, resulted in significant inhibition of NO-mediated DOPA oxidation. Further analysis using fluorescent and EPR methods demonstrated that the effect of NO on DOPA oxidation is explained by oxidation of NO to NO₂ at the active site of PO followed by oxidation of DOPA by NO₂. On the contrary, the bolus addition of NO gas solution resulted in a significant decrease in observed PO activity. Similar dose-dependent effect of NO was observed for the insect’s haemocytes quantified as percentage of melanized cells after treatment with nitric oxide. In conclusion, the results of the study suggest that NO may have a significant regulatory role on melanization process in invertebrates as well as in human and result in protective or damaging effects.     

NAD(P)H fluorescence imaging of mitochondrial metabolism in contracting Xenopus skeletal muscle fibers: effect of oxygen availability.

The blue autofluorescence (351 nm excitation, 450 nm emission) of single skeletal muscle fibers from Xenopus was characterized to be originating from mitochondrial NAD(P)H on the basis of morphological and functional correlations. This fluorescence signal was used to estimate the oxygen availability to isolated single Xenopus muscle fibers during work level transitions by confocal microscopy. Fibers were stimulated to generate two contractile periods that were only different in the PO2 of the solution perfusing the single fibers (PO2 of 30 or 0-2 Torr; pH = 7.2). During contractions, mean cellular NAD(P)H increased significantly from rest in the low PO2 condition with the core (inner 10%) increasing to a greater extent than the periphery (outer 10%). After the cessation of work, NAD(P)H decreased in a manner consistent with oxygen tensions sufficient to oxidize the surplus NAD(P)H. In contrast, NAD(P)H decreased significantly with work in 30 Torr PO2. However, the rate of NAD(P)H oxidation was slower and significantly increased with the cessation of work in the core of the fiber compared with the peripheral region, consistent with a remaining limitation in oxygen availability. These results suggest that the blue autofluorescence signal in Xenopus skeletal muscle fibers is from mitochondrial NAD(P)H and that the rate of NAD(P)H oxidation within the cell is influenced by extracellular PO2 even at high extracellular PO2 during the contraction cycle. These results also demonstrate that although oxygen availability influences the rate of NAD(P)H oxidation, it does not prevent NAD(P)H from being oxidized through the process of oxidative phosphorylation at the onset of contractions.     

3D-QSAR and molecular docking studies of benzaldehyde thiosemicarbazone, benzaldehyde, benzoic acid, and their derivatives as phenoloxidase inhibitors

Phenoloxidase (PO), also known as tyrosinase, is a key enzyme in insect development, responsible for catalyzing the hydroxylation of tyrosine into o-diphenols and the oxidation of o-diphenols into o-quinones. Inhibition of PO may provide a basis for novel environmentally friendly insecticides. In the present study, we determined the inhibitory activities and IC50 values of 57 compounds belonging to the benzaldehyde thiosemicarbazone, benzaldehyde, and benzoic acid families against phenoloxidase from Pieris rapae (Lepidoptera) larvae. In addition, the inhibitory kinetics of 4-butylbenzaldehyde thiosemicarbazone against PO was measured in air-saturated solutions for the oxidation of L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA). The results indicated that the compound is a reversible noncompetitive inhibitor. The bioactivity results were used to construct three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship (3D-QSAR) models using two molecular field analysis techniques: comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) and comparative molecular similarity indices analysis (CoMSIA). After carrying out superimposition using common substructure-based alignment, robust and predictive 3D-QSAR models were obtained from CoMFA (q2=0.926, r2=0.986) and CoMSIA (q2=0.933, r2=0.984) with six optimum components. The 3D-QSAR model built here will provide hints for the design of novel PO inhibitors. The molecular interactions between the ligands and the target were studied using a flexible docking method (FlexX). The best scored candidates were docked flexibly, and the interaction between the representative compound 4-butylbenzaldehyde thiosemicarbazone and the active site was elucidated in detail.     

Phenoloxidase activity in the reproductive system and egg masses of the pulmonate gastropod,Biomphalaria glabrata

Phenoloxidase (PO) activity in the albumen gland (AG) and egg masses (EM) ofBiomphalaria glabrata was assessed using high-performance liquid chromatography combined with electrochemical detection and colorimetric techniques. Both AG and EM extracts catalyzed the hydroxylation ofl-tyrosine (monophenol oxidase activity, MPO) and oxidation ofl-dopa (diphenol oxidase activity, DPO). However, no PO activity was found in the ovotestis. Both MPO and DPO activities in AG and EM were significantly inhibited by 1-phenyl-2-thiourea and inactivated by boiling. Approximately 35% of MPO and 44% of DPO activities were detected in the soluble fraction of homogenized EM, in contrast to that of homogenized AG, which contained about 5% and 12%, respectively, of MPO and DPO activities. N-acetyl-dopamine, a diphenolic compound, enhanced the hydroxylation of tyrosine by the PO. The presence of both MPO and DPO activities also was confirmed by the accelerated accumulation of dopachrome during incubation of EM extracts withl-tyrosine in the absence of ascorbate. Temperature and pH optima for this enzyme were 30°C and 7.5, respectively. The potential roles of PO in egg formation inB. glabrata are discussed.     

Facile syntheses of 1,2,4-triazole and s-triazine glycosides from glycosyl isothiocyanates

Reaction of glycosyl isothiocyanates (la, b or c) with acyl or aroyl hydrazine gave the corresponding glycosyl thiosemicarbazides, and which were treated with Ac2O-H3PO4 to yield 1,2,4-triazole glycosides. Similar treatment of la, b or c with amidino compounds gave glycosylisothiobiurets, followed by N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) oxidation to give 1,2,4-triazole glycosides. Treatment of glycosylisothiobiurets with triethyl orthoformate gave the corresponding s-triazine glycosides.     

Isolation,characterization and function of laccase from Trichoderma

Of fourteen natural isolates of Trichoderma, no correlation was found between substrate weight loss and phenol oxidase (PO) activity in rice straw cultures. The highest PO producer from these laccase-positive strains was subjected to UV mutagenesis in order to select high and low PO activity mutants. There was no significant difference in substrate weight loss for mutant strains with six times higher and six times lower PO activity than the parent strain. Nor did the enzyme activity result in decreased growth inhibition by inhibitory phenolic compounds. PO enzyme from the parent Trichoderma and one of its high-PO-activity mutants was subsequently purified by ethanol precipitation from liquid cultures optimized by supplementation with copper sulphate and cycloheximide. Protein staining and activity staining of disc electrophoresis gels showed that only one PO enzyme of approximately 71 000 Da was produced. The enzyme could be defined as a laccase (benzenediol: oxygen oxidoreductase E.C. 1.10.3.2) because it catalysed the oxidation of syringaldazine and p-phenylenediamine in the absence of hydrogen peroxide, and because it was inhibited by cetyltrimethylammonium because but not by cinnamic acid. No specific in-vivo function could be assigned to this enzyme.Correspondence to: T. W. Flegel     

The electron paramagnetic resonance characterisation of a copper-containing extracellular peroxidase from Thermomonospora fusca BD25.

The actinomycete Thermomonospora fusca BD25 contains a peroxidase with a high activity over a broad range of temperature and pH and a high stability against denaturing agents. Unusually this peroxidase (PO) is a non-haem enzyme. As prepared PO is characterised by two electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) signals, detected at liquid helium temperature, a free radical signal (g=2.0045) and a broad signal at g=2.056. The peroxidase activity of the purified enzyme was assayed using H(2)O(2) and 2,4-dichlorophenol (DCP). The intensity of the free radical EPR signal correlated with the peroxidase activity in a variety of enzyme preparations. Furthermore, when DCP and H(2)O(2) were added to PO a significant increase of both the free radical signal and the broad signal at g=2.056 was observed. We associate the increase of the broad signal with the oxidation of the preparation since a similar increase can be achieved by the addition of ferricyanide. The high intensity of the broad signal in the ferricyanide treated PO allowed us to deconvolute the signal into several components using the difference in their relaxation characteristics: two distinct copper signals were detected, one of which was similar to a type 2 centre. Furthermore a symmetrical singlet was detected at g=2.059, consistent with the presence of an iron complex with a high degree of symmetry and weakly coordinated ligands.     

Enzymic degradation of phenolic materials in peatlands — measurement of phenol oxidase activity

The model substrate L-dihydroxy phenylalanine (L-DOPA) was used to measure the activity of phenol-oxidase (PO) in peat from a Welsh riparian wetland. The sensitive and relatively simple technique measured the rate of formation of the red coloured compound 2-carboxy-2,3-dihydroindole-5,6-quinone from the enzymic oxidation of L-dopa. The method was used to test the hypothesis that the large exports of phenolic materials from peatlands into aquatic systems were caused by low phenolic-degrading enzyme activities within the peat matrix. The low oxygen availability and acidic pH of the peat soil were found to be sub-optimal for PO activity. Furthermore, a depth-dependent decline in PO activity was inversely correlated with phenolic concentrations. Thus, the findings supported the above hypothesis.     

Inhibitors of oxidative degradation of protein: Gerotological implications

Compounds were studied that inhibit the oxidative degradation of human serum albumin by peroxidase and the enzyme model, iron hydroxide. Differences between the two oxidants gave clues for the mechanism of inhibition. The inhibitors studied were inorganic anions, phosphate, sulfate, carbonate and molybdate; organic anions, decanoate and glycocholate; and the nonionic species, glycogen. Such inhibitors might be considered as adjuvants in senscence: by decreasing the rate of enzymic oxidation of essential body proteins, they would, in the course of aging, reduce some of the physiological changes occurring as a result of accumulation of degraded protein.Oxidation of essential body constituents with subsequent accumulation of degraded oxidation products has been implicated as a factor in senescence by several authors (1). As an example, lipofuscin, found in old tissues, is possibly such a product, since hyperoxia increases its amount (2). In keeping with such considerations the present author has shown that human serum proteins are being oxidized by ubiquitous oxidizing enzymes, such as polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (PO) (3), and that undesirable oxidation products might accumulate in the tissues when the rate of synthesis of native proteins is reduced as is the case in advanced age (4).It was accordingly thought desirable to establish what chemicals inhibit, at least partially, the activity of the enzymes mentioned. Such inhibitors, if normally present in the body, migh possibly counteract the oxidative degradation of tissues. Others, foreign to the body, might, if nontoxic, ultimately be considered as pharmaceuticals that could alleviate some of the symptoms developing as a result of accumulation of degraded oxidation products. The present study has been carried out with the aim of finding such inhibitors of protein oxidation.The author also found that iron hydroxide sol is a suitable model for PO, since the latter carries an iron atom as an essential constituent. In the present study therefore parallel measurements of inhibition were carried out with both PO and iron hydroxide. Such parallel study was helpful in choosing possible candidates for inhibitor, as also in drawing some conclusions as to the possible mechanism of inhibition.