Time-dependent neurosphere-forming ability of adult rat spinal cord after irradiation

To determine whether there was evidence for long-term time-dependent changes in neurosphere-forming ability of rat spinal cord after irradiation, a 15-mm length of spinal cord (C2-T2) of 10-week-old female rats was irradiated with a single dose of 2, 5, 10 or 19 Gy. Cells were isolated from the central 10-mm segment of the irradiated spinal cord immediately or at 0.5, 1, 2 or 5 months to form neurospheres. The number and sizes of neurospheres were determined at day 10, 12, 14 and 16 in vitro. The multipotential properties of neurosphere cells were assessed by immunocytochemistry using lineage-specific markers for neurons and glia. In nonirradiated controls, the number and size of the neurospheres decreased with increasing age of the animals. Regardless of the time after irradiation, there was a dose-dependent decrease in the number and size of neurospheres obtained from the irradiated cord compared to age-matched controls. Using three-way ANOVA, the number of neurospheres was dependent on radiation dose (P < 0.0001), time after irradiation (P < 0.0001), and day of counting in vitro (P < 0.0001). Compared to cells cultured immediately after irradiation, there was an increase in the relative plating efficiency of neurospheres cultured 1 month after irradiation. However, no further increase was apparent up to 5 months after irradiation. The multipotential properties of neurosphere cells in vitro remained unchanged with increasing time after irradiation. These results may suggest a time-dependent recovery of radiation damage using neurosphere-forming ability as the end point and agree with data that show time-dependent recovery of radiation damage in spinal cord using histological or functional end points.     

Isolation of Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells from the Periventricular Region of the Adult Rat and Human Spinal Cord

Adult rat and human spinal cord neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) cultured in growth factor-enriched medium allows for the proliferation of multipotent, self-renewing, and expandable neural stem cells. In serum conditions, these multipotent NSPCs will differentiate, generating neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. The harvested tissue is enzymatically dissociated in a papain-EDTA solution and then mechanically dissociated and separated through a discontinuous density gradient to yield a single cell suspension which is plated in neurobasal medium supplemented with epidermal growth factor (EGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), and heparin. Adult rat spinal cord NSPCs are cultured as free-floating neurospheres and adult human spinal cord NSPCs are grown as adherent cultures. Under these conditions, adult spinal cord NSPCs proliferate, express markers of precursor cells, and can be continuously expanded upon passage. These cells can be studied in vitro in response to various stimuli, and exogenous factors may be used to promote lineage restriction to examine neural stem cell differentiation. Multipotent NSPCs or their progeny can also be transplanted into various animal models to assess regenerative repair.     

Effects of chitosan/collagen substrates on the behavior of rat neural stem cells

Spinal cord and brain injuries usually lead to cavity formation. The transplantation by combining stem cells and tissue engineering scaffolds has the potential to fill the cavities and replace the lost neural cells. Both chitosan and collagen have their unique characteristics. In this study, the effects of chitosan and collagen on the behavior of rat neural stem cells (at the neurosphere level) were tested in vitro in terms of cytotoxicity and supporting ability for stem cell survival, proliferation and differentiation. Under the serum-free condition, both chitosan membranes and collagen gels had low cytotoxicity to neurospheres. That is, cells migrated from neurospheres, and processes extended out from these neurospheres and the differentiated cells. Compared with the above two materials, chitosan-collagen membranes were more suitable for the co-culture with rat neural stem cells, because, except for low cytotoxicity and supporting ability for the cell survival, in this group, a large number of cells were observed to migrate out from neurospheres, and the differentiating percentage from neurospheres into neurons was significantly increased. Further modification of chitosan-collagen membranes may shed light on in vivo nerve regeneration by transplanting neural stem cells.     

Changes in progenitor populations and ongoing neurogenesis in the regenerating chick spinal cord

The chick spinal cord can regenerate following injury until advanced developmental stages. It is conceivable that changes in stem/progenitor cell plasticity contribute to the loss of this capacity, which occurs around E13. We investigated the contribution of proliferation, phenotypic changes in radial glia progenitors, and neurogenesis to spinal cord regeneration. There was no early up-regulation of markers of gliogenic radial glia after injury either at E11 or E15. In contrast, increased proliferation in the grey matter and up-regulation of transitin expression following injury at E11, but not E15, suggested high levels of plasticity within the E11 spinal cord progenitor population that are lost by later stages. Changes in neural progenitors with development were also supported by a higher neurosphere forming ability at E11 than at E15. Co-labelling with doublecortin and neuron-specific markers and BrdU in spinal cord sections and dissociated cells showed that neurogenesis is an ongoing process in E11 chick spinal cords. This neurogenesis appeared to be complete by E15. Our findings demonstrate that the regeneration-competent chick spinal cord is less mature and more plastic than previously believed, which may contribute to its favourable response to injury, and suggest a role for neurogenesis in maintaining regenerative capacity.     

MiR-615在平行培养的神经干细胞与运动神经元的表达比较

目的探讨MiR-615在脊髓源性神经干细胞与运动神经元间的表达特征。方法通过免疫磁珠法分离纯化胚胎大鼠脊髓运动神经元;通过神经克隆球形成技术分离纯化胚胎大鼠脊髓源性神经干细胞。采用TaqMan miR-615Assay定量检测培养的脊髓源性神经干细胞与运动神经元中miR-615的表达差异。结果通过平行培养技术分别获得了纯化的脊髓源性神经干细胞与运动神经元。定量检测结果显示,miR-615在分离的运动神经元中较在脊髓源性神经干细胞中显著高表达。结论本文提示miR-615可能在神经干细胞定向分化为运动神经元过程中发挥重要的调节作用。     

人胎儿脊髓神经干细胞的分离培养

本文旨在探讨是否能够从低温保存的流产儿分离培养出脊髓神经干细胞。将14周流产儿在4℃下保存,2、6和12h后取脊髓,将颈段、胸段、腰骶段分别进行无血清培养,并用胎牛血清诱导分化。用克隆培养的方法验证培养细胞的干细胞特性;用免疫荧光细胞化学的方法检测神经干细胞标志nestin及干细胞诱导分化后神经元标志MAP2、星形胶质细胞标志GFAP、胆碱能标志ChAT,并比较不同时间点以及不同部位分离的神经T细胞的差异。在各个时间点,从颈段、胸段、腰骶段脊髓均分离培养出具有连续增殖能力的神经球,其中腰骶段分离出的神经球数量最多,12h组各段分离出的神经球较2、6h组显著减少。各段培养中的神经球均为nestin阳性,诱导分化后均能够产生GFAP阳性星形胶质细胞、MAP2阳性神经元以及ChAT阳性胆碱能神经元。各段培养中的神经干细胞的克隆形成能力相似。以上结果表明,从低温保存的人胎儿能够分离培养出脊髓神经干细胞,这为基础研究以及未来治疗应用提供了新的细胞来源。     

Strengths and limitations of the neurosphere culture system

After the initial reports of free-floating cultures of neural stem cells termed neurospheres (1,2), a wide array of studies using this promising culture system emerged. In theory, this was a nearperfect system for large-scale production of neural cells for use in cell replacement therapies and to assay for and characterize neural stem cells. More than a decade later, after rigorous scrutiny and ample experimental testing of the neurosphere culture system, it has become apparent that the culture system suffers from several disadvantages, and its usefulness is limited for several applications. Nevertheless, the bulk of high-quality research produced over the last decade has also shown that under the right circumstances and for the appropriate purposes, neurospheres hold up to their initial promise. This article discusses the pros and cons of the neurosphere culture system regarding its three major applications: as an assay for neural stem cells, as a model system for neurogenesis and neural development, and for expansion of neural stem cells for transplantation purposes.     

FGF-dependent generation of oligodendrocytes by a hedgehog-independent pathway

During development, spinal cord oligodendrocyte precursors (OPCs) originate from the ventral, but not dorsal, neuroepithelium. Sonic hedgehog (SHH) has crucial effects on oligodendrocyte production in the ventral region of the spinal cord; however, less is known regarding SHH signalling and oligodendrocyte generation from neural stem cells (NSCs). We show that NSCs isolated from the dorsal spinal cord can generate oligodendrocytes following FGF2 treatment, a MAP kinase dependent phenomenon that is associated with induction of the obligate oligogenic gene Olig2. Cyclopamine, a potent inhibitor of hedgehog signalling, did not block the formation of oligodendrocytes from FGF2-treated neurosphere cultures. Furthermore, neurospheres generated from SHH null mice also produced oligodendrocytes, even in the presence of cyclopamine. These findings are compatible with the idea of a hedgehog independent pathway for oligodendrocyte generation from neural stem cells.     

Neural stem cells isolated from amyloid precursor proteinmutated mice for drug discovery

AIM: To develop an in vitro model based on neural stem cells derived from transgenic animals, to be used in the study of pathological mechanisms of Alzheimer’s disease and for testing new molecules.METHODS: Neural stem cells(NSCs) were isolated from the subventricular zone of Wild type(Wt) and Tg2576 mice. Primary and secondary neurosphere generation was studied, analysing population doubling and the cell yield per animal. Secondary neurospheres were dissociated and plated on MCM Gel Cultrex 2D and after 6 d in vitro(DIVs) in mitogen withdrawal conditions,spontaneous differentiation was studied using specific neural markers(MAP2 and TuJ-1 for neurons, GFAP forastroglial cells and CNPase for oligodendrocytes). Gene expression pathways were analysed in secondary neurospheres, using the QIAGEN PCR array for neurogenesis, comparing the Tg2576 derived cell expression with the Wt cells. Proteins encoded by the altered genes were clustered using STRING web software.RESULTS: As revealed by 6E10 positive staining, all Tg2576 derived cells retain the expression of the human transgenic Amyloid Precursor Protein. Tg2576 derived primary neurospheres show a decrease in population doubling. Morphological analysis of differentiated NSCs reveals a decrease in MAP2- and an increase in GFAP-positive cells in Tg2576 derived cells. Analysing the branching of TuJ-1 positive cells, a clear decrease in neurite number and length is observed in Tg2576 cells.The gene expression neurogenesis pathway revealed11 altered genes in Tg2576 NSCs compared to Wt.CONCLUSION: Tg2576 NSCs represent an appropriate AD in vitro model resembling some cellular alterations observed in vivo, both as stem and differentiated cells.     

体外神经干细胞克隆球的超微结构-透射电镜观察

为观察培养的神经干细胞克隆球内部的超微结构特征,采用无血清培养技术,在体外进行小鼠纹状体神经干细胞克隆球的培养传代,经过免疫细胞化学鉴定后,对单一的神经干细胞克隆球进行固定,常规透射电镜观察。结果表明,神经干细胞可以在bFGF等生长因子存在的情况下,在无血清培养液内增殖生成悬浮状态的神经干细胞克隆球,这种克隆可被诱导生成神经细胞和神经胶质细胞,电镜下,神经干细胞克隆球内部细胞相互间可形成特化的膜性结构,细胞内可有小泡出现,部分细胞有凋亡的形态。     

Irradiation in vitro discriminates between different O-2A progenitor cell subpopulations in the perinatal central nervous system of rats

The effects of X irradiation on oligodendrocyte-type-2-astrocyte (O-2A) progenitor cells derived from different regions of the perinatal central nervous system (CNS) of rats were investigated in vitro. The O-2A progenitor cells can differentiate into either oligodendrocytes or type-2 astrocytes. The depletion of these cells could lead to demyelination, seen as a delayed reaction after irradiation of the CNS in vivo. To quantify cell survival, O-2A progenitor cells were grown on monolayers of type-1 astrocytes. Monolayers of type-1 astrocytes stimulate O-2A progenitor cells to divide. O-2A progenitor cells were irradiated in vitro and clonogenic cell survival was measured. The O-2A progenitor cells derived from perinatal optic nerve were quite radiosensitive in contrast to O-2A progenitor cells derived from perinatal spinal cord and perinatal corpus callosum. Furthermore, O-2A progenitor cells derived from the optic nerve formed smaller colonies, with most colonies showing early differentiation into oligodendrocytes. In contrast, more than half of the colonies derived from corpus callosum did not show any differentiation after 2 weeks in vitro and kept growing. These differences support the view that perinatal O-2A progenitor cells derived from the optic nerve are committed progenitor cells while the O-2A progenitor cells derived from the perinatal corpus callosum and the perinatal spinal cord have more stem cell properties.     

Alcohol impairs astrogliogenesis by stem cells in rodent neurospheres

Neurosphere cultures derived from fetal brain regions can proliferate in response to exogenous growth factors such as basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and give rise to undifferentiated precursor cells that form a floating neurosphere. In this study, neurospheres generated from the ganglionic eminence region of embryonic day 15 (E15) rat embryos were treated in the presence or absence of ethanol. We found that such neurospheres respond to environmental toxins such as alcohol and still retain the multi-potential capability of differentiation into neuronal and glial cell types. Ethanol at high concentration (50 mM) affected proliferation, gliogenesis and neurogenesis, although the most profound effect was observed on glial phenotype. Our findings suggest that extrinsic agents, such as alcohol can alter intrinsic cellular mechanisms of stem cell fate choices contributing to altered neurogenesis and gliogenesis during central nervous system (CNS) maturation, which might in part be responsible for defective astroglial and neuronal functions in fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS).     

Promotion of Survival and Differentiation of Neural Stem Cells with Fibrin and Growth Factor Cocktails after Severe Spinal Cord Injury

Neural stem cells (NSCs) can self-renew and differentiate into neurons and glia. Transplanted NSCs can replace lost neurons and glia after spinal cord injury (SCI), and can form functional relays to re-connect spinal cord segments above and below a lesion. Previous studies grafting neural stem cells have been limited by incomplete graft survival within the spinal cord lesion cavity. Further, tracking of graft cell survival, differentiation, and process extension had not been optimized. Finally, in previous studies, cultured rat NSCs were typically reported to differentiate into glia when grafted to the injured spinal cord, rather than neurons, unless fate was driven to a specific cell type. To address these issues, we developed new methods to improve the survival, integration and differentiation of NSCs to sites of even severe SCI. NSCs were freshly isolated from embryonic day 14 spinal cord (E14) from a stable transgenic Fischer 344 rat line expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) and were embedded into a fibrin matrix containing growth factors; this formulation aimed to retain grafted cells in the lesion cavity and support cell survival. NSCs in the fibrin/growth factor cocktail were implanted two weeks after thoracic level-3 (T3) complete spinal cord transections, thereby avoiding peak periods of inflammation. Resulting grafts completely filled the lesion cavity and differentiated into both neurons, which extended axons into the host spinal cord over remarkably long distances, and glia. Grafts of cultured human NSCs expressing GFP resulted in similar findings. Thus, methods are defined for improving neural stem cell grafting, survival and analysis of in vivo findings.     

Circadian Clock Genes Are Essential for Normal Adult Neurogenesis,Differentiation, and Fate Determination

Adult neurogenesis creates new neurons and glia from stem cells in the human brain throughout life. It is best understood in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus and the subventricular zone (SVZ). Circadian rhythms have been identified in the hippocampus, but the role of any endogenous circadian oscillator cells in hippocampal neurogenesis and their importance in learning or memory remains unclear. Any study of stem cell regulation by intrinsic circadian timing within the DG is complicated by modulation from circadian clocks elsewhere in the brain. To examine circadian oscillators in greater isolation, neurosphere cultures were prepared from the DG of two knockout mouse lines that lack a functional circadian clock and from mPer1::luc mice to identify circadian oscillations in gene expression. Circadian mPer1 gene activity rhythms were recorded in neurospheres maintained in a culture medium that induces neurogenesis but not in one that maintains the stem cell state. Although the differentiating neural stem progenitor cells of spheres were rhythmic, evidence of any mature neurons was extremely sparse. The circadian timing signal originated in undifferentiated cells within the neurosphere. This conclusion was supported by immunocytochemistry for mPER1 protein that was localized to the inner, more stem cell-like neurosphere core. To test for effects of the circadian clock on neurogenesis, media conditions were altered to induce neurospheres from BMAL1 knockout mice to differentiate. These cultures displayed unusually high differentiation into glia rather than neurons according to GFAP and NeuN expression, respectively, and very few BetaIII tubulin-positive, immature neurons were observed. The knockout neurospheres also displayed areas visibly devoid of cells and had overall higher cell death. Neurospheres from arrhythmic mice lacking two other core clock genes, Cry1 and Cry2, showed significantly reduced growth and increased astrocyte proliferation during differentiation, but they generated normal percentages of neuronal cells. Neuronal fate commitment therefore appears to be controlled through a non-clock function of BMAL1. This study provides insight into how cell autonomous circadian clocks and clock genes regulate adult neural stem cells with implications for treating neurodegenerative disorders and impaired brain functions by manipulating neurogenesis.     

Isolation and Culture of Adult Zebrafish Brain-derived Neurospheres

The zebrafish is a highly relevant model organism for understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in neurogenesis and brain regeneration in vertebrates. However, an in-depth analysis of the molecular mechanisms underlying zebrafish adult neurogenesis has been limited due to the lack of a reliable protocol for isolating and culturing neural adult stem/progenitor cells. Here we provide a reproducible method to examine adult neurogenesis using a neurosphere assay derived from zebrafish whole brain or from the telencephalon, tectum and cerebellum regions of the adult zebrafish brain. The protocol involves, first the microdissection of zebrafish adult brain, then single cell dissociation and isolation of self-renewing multipotent neural stem/progenitor cells. The entire procedure takes eight days. Additionally, we describe how to manipulate gene expression in zebrafish neurospheres, which will be particularly useful to test the role of specific signaling pathways during adult neural stem/progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation in zebrafish.     

Analysis of green fluorescent protein expression in transgenic rats for tracking transplanted neural stem/progenitor cells.

Green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression was evaluated in tissues of different transgenic rodents--Sprague-Dawley (SD) rat strain [SD-Tg(GFP)Bal], W rat strain [Wistar-TgN(CAG-GFP)184ys], and M mouse strain [Tg(GFPU)5Nagy/J]--by direct fluorescence of native GFP expression and by immunohistochemistry. The constitutively expressing GFP transgenic strains showed tissue-specific differences in GFP expression, and GFP immunohistochemistry amplified the fluorescent signal. The fluorescence of stem/progenitor cells cultured as neurospheres from the ependymal region of the adult spinal cord from the GFP SD and W rat strains was assessed in vitro. After transplantation of the cells into wild-type spinal cord, the ability to track the grafted cells was evaluated in vivo. Cultured stem/progenitor cells from the SD strain required GFP immunostaining to be visualized. Likewise, after transplantation of SD cells into the spinal cord, immunohistochemical amplification of the GFP signal was required for detection. In contrast, GFP expression of stem/progenitor cells generated from the W strain was readily detected by direct fluorescence both in vitro and in vivo without the need for immunohistochemical amplification. The cultured stem/progenitor cells transplanted into the spinal cord survived for at least 49 days after transplantation, and continued to express GFP, demonstrating stable expression of the GFP transgene in vivo.     

Effect of Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide on the Neurogenesis of Rat Adipose-Derived Stem Cells In Vitro

Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) promotes neuron recruitment and neurogenic activity. However, no evidence suggests that CGRP affects the ability of stem cells to differentiate toward neurogenesis. In this study, we genetically modified rat adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) with the CGRP gene (CGRP-ADSCs) and subsequently cultured in complete neural-induced medium. The formation of neurospheres, cellular morphology, and proliferative capacity of ADSCs were observed. In addition, the expression of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 and special markers of neural cells, such as Nestin, MAP2, RIP and GFAP, were evaluated using Western blot and immunocytochemistry analysis. The CGRP-ADSCs displayed a greater proliferation than un-transduced (ADSCs) and Vector-transduced (Vector-ADSCs) ADSCs (p<0.05), and lower rates of apoptosis, associated with the incremental expression of Bcl-2, were also observed for CGRP-ADSCs. Moreover, upon neural induction, CGRP-ADSCs formed markedly more and larger neurospheres and showed round cell bodies with more branching extensions contacted with neighboring cells widely. Furthermore, the expression levels of Nestin, MAP2, and RIP in CGRP-ADSCs were markedly increased, resulting in higher levels than the other groups (p<0.05); however, GFAP was distinctly undetectable until day 7, when slight GFAP expression was detected among all groups. Wnt signals, primarily Wnt 3a, Wnt 5a and β-catenin, regulate the neural differentiation of ADSCs, and CGRP gene expression apparently depends on canonical Wnt signals to promote the neurogenesis of ADSCs. Consequently, ADSCs genetically modified with CGRP exhibit stronger potential for differentiation and neurogenesis in vitro, potentially reflecting the usefulness of ADSCs as seed cells in therapeutic strategies for spinal cord injury.     

Integration and Long Distance Axonal Regeneration in the Central Nervous System from Transplanted Primitive Neural Stem Cells

Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in devastating motor and sensory deficits secondary to disrupted neuronal circuits and poor regenerative potential. Efforts to promote regeneration through cell extrinsic and intrinsic manipulations have met with limited success. Stem cells represent an as yet unrealized therapy in SCI. Recently, we identified novel culture methods to induce and maintain primitive neural stem cells (pNSCs) from human embryonic stem cells. We tested whether transplanted human pNSCs can integrate into the CNS of the developing chick neural tube and injured adult rat spinal cord. Following injection of pNSCs into the developing chick CNS, pNSCs integrated into the dorsal aspects of the neural tube, forming cell clusters that spontaneously differentiated into neurons. Furthermore, following transplantation of pNSCs into the lesioned rat spinal cord, grafted pNSCs survived, differentiated into neurons, and extended long distance axons through the scar tissue at the graft-host interface and into the host spinal cord to form terminal-like structures near host spinal neurons. Together, these findings suggest that pNSCs derived from human embryonic stem cells differentiate into neuronal cell types with the potential to extend axons that associate with circuits of the CNS and, more importantly, provide new insights into CNS integration and axonal regeneration, offering hope for repair in SCI.     

新生大鼠脊髓神经干细胞的分离培养及鉴定

目的　从新生大鼠的脊髓中分离培养神经干细胞并观察其增殖和分化能力。方法　采用细胞培养技术结合间接免疫荧光细胞化学法。结果　分离的细胞生长旺盛 ,单克隆化生成的细胞团 ,BrdU掺入呈强阳性。分离培养获得的细胞团呈Nestin强阳性 ,至今已在体外连续传代 8个月。培养的细胞团经 1%小牛血清诱导可分化为神经元和星形胶质细胞。结论　成功分离培养了新生大鼠脊髓神经干细胞     

Wnt proteins promote neuronal differentiation in neural stem cell culture

Wnt signaling is implicated in the control of cell growth and differentiation during CNS development from studies of mouse and chick models, but its action at the cellular level has been poorly understand. In this study, we examine the in vitro function of Wnt signaling in embryonic neural stem cells, dissociated from neurospheres derived from E11.5 mouse telencephalon. Conditioned media containing active Wnt-3a proteins are added to the neural stem cells and its effect on regeneration of neurospheres and differentiation into neuronal and glial cells was examined. Wnt-3a proteins inhibit regeneration of neurospheres, but promote differentiation into MAP2-positive neuronal cells. Wnt-3a proteins also increase the number of GFAP-positive astrocytes but suppress the number of oligodendroglial lineage cells expressing PDGFR or O4. These results indicate that Wnt-3a signaling can inhibit the maintenance of neural stem cells, but rather promote the differentiation of neural stem cells into several cell lineages.