Catchments as conservation units for riverine biodiversity

The geological structure and longitudinal nature of river systems provide a possible barrier to the dispersal of lotic organisms. This has the potential to drive evolutionary processes such as genetic differentiation and subsequent allopatric speciation. In the conservation of lotic ecosystems population and evolutionary processes have largely been ignored. The traditional approach to river conservation has been focussed toward maintaining the physical habitat that provides the template for the biota. With a shift toward recognising the catchment as the primary operational unit for the conservation and management of lotic systems an examination of the biological relevance of these catchment units is required. This paper examines the structural influence of catchment units over population structure in lotic organisms and the extent to which catchments reflect populations and represent evolutionarily significant units. These being unique assemblages representing segments of biological diversity that share a common evolutionary lineage and contain the potential for a unique evolutionary future. This is of particular importance given the increased use of inter-basin water transfers to move water between historically isolated catchments and recognition of the catchment as the primary unit for the conservation and management of river ecosystems.     

The development of an assessment system to evaluate the ecological status of rivers in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region: introduction to the special feature

Development of an Assessment System to Evaluate the Ecological Status of Rivers in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region (ASSESS-HKH) was a 3-year research project funded by the European Union (Contract number: INCO-CT-2005-003659). This article provides an overview of this research project by summarising the objectives, the approaches and the main achievements. The main objective was to develop and apply a biological assessment system to evaluate the river’s ecological quality and to provide a scientific basis for the identification of sustainable water policy options and management strategies. The assessment tools were jointly developed by European partners, who provided their experience from recent research activities (STAR, AQEM) and Asian partners, who provided the knowledge about Asian river catchments and management necessities. The project was organised into eight work packages defining the time line for all phases, such as establishment of a stream typology and definition of reference conditions and stages of impairment classes for the rivers in the Asian countries, including a review of existing policies for water management. A specific part of the project was dedicated to increasing the overall poor knowledge of benthic invertebrates in the region and their value to the classification of the river’s ecological quality. All activities were accompanied by information events for local residents, universities and water managers. A total of 396 multi-habitat samples, from 115 rivers in five different ecoregions, were taken in two different seasons and accompanied by information on 95 parameters describing river and catchment characteristics. The benthic invertebrates in the samples were taxonomically identified based on keys generated within the project. Taxalists, with abundances per site, and field protocol information were entered into a specifically developed software tool. This dataset was the basis for developing ecological river assessment methods, called HKHscreening (Rapid Field Assessment), HKHbios (HKH Biotic Score) and HKHindex (Multimetric Index). Furthermore, a software tool (ECODAT) for using these methods was developed. The monitoring tools will serve citizens and scientists of the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region and will provide a scientific basis for policy recommendations, mitigation strategies, transnational water resource planning and sustainable ecosystem management. Additional outputs, including all sampling and laboratory protocols and project deliverables, together with the freely downloadable software, are available at the following website: http://www.assess-hkh.at.     

Integrating Indigenous Resource Management with Wildlife Conservation: A Case Study of Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia

This paper examines the indigenous land and forest management systems of the community of seven Iban longhouses whose territories comprise the area of Batang Ai National Park in Sarawak, Malaysia. It also discusses the integrated conservation and development program (ICDP) at the park. This project is attempting to work within the existing system of customary law to build on traditional legislative infrastructure and management practices, in order to enlist the cooperation of local people and their leaders in implementing a new conservation strategy. In addition to reinforcing local authority, park planners recognize the need for local people to be given strong incentives to participate in co-management of the protected area. This paper argues that, despite a history of conflict with indigenous peoples, State officials have in this instance demonstrated a willingness to work with local people and community leaders. At the same time, they are encouraging community development, helping people to find alternatives to activities that threaten the park's wildlife.     

Leaf-litter application to a sandy soil modifies phosphorus leaching over the wet season of southwestern Australia

Use of science in wetland management has increased considerably over the last 50 years but there is still scope for improving the transfer of research results into management. Issues that lead to less than optimal transfer include: (1) managers not accessing existing technical information adequately, (2) researchers addressing issues of peripheral importance to management rather than key information needs, (3) managers failing to identify significant information gaps and to resource appropriate research in a timely way, (4) scale of research and certainty of results being inappropriate for application to broad-scale situations by managers responsible for outcomes, and (5) funding bodies not fully recognizing that transfer of research results to management requires a development phase. Establishment of recovery catchments in the Western Australian wheatbelt, with the aim of maintaining regional biodiversity in the face of increasing dryland salinisation, is a program that relies on transferring research results into management. However, the multi-disciplinary nature of managing salinisation is a challenge for many catchment managers and formal management systems are probably an important adjunct to close knowledge of the catchment when making management decisions. An examination of management planning and actions in the Lake Warden Natural Diversity Recovery Catchment, south-west Western Australia, highlights the continuum between research and management, the importance of understanding the physical environment when managing biodiversity, and the fact that much wetland conservation relies on management action in terrestrial landscapes.     

Traditional Water Resource Management and Water Quality in Rural Tanzania

Traditional resource management (TRM) is largely based on local ecological knowledge (LEK). In regions where formal institutional control of natural resources is limited due to a lack of coordination or stakeholder involvement, communities rely on TRM to manage common-pool resources. This paper examines TRM among the Sonjo in rural Northern Tanzania, with particular reference to catchment forest protection and water quality. We first document the ecological knowledge of traditional resource managers, and then describe the differences between traditionally managed water sources and formal, government managed resources. Using both qualitative and quantitative methods to examine water use, perceptions of water quality, and bacterial water quality, significant differences were detected among river basins within seasons and between seasons. Our findings indicate that the Sonjo, well known for their traditional forest conservation practices and irrigation management, may also benefit from TRM through improved water quality. The examination of traditional methods of water conservation provides insight into how communities in resource-stressed regions thrive despite seasonal droughts and flooding.     

Applying non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis for measuring the assemblage change of Chu-Lan Creek dike in Taiwan

Ensuring that water resources development in harmony with aquatic environment is the major water policy of Taiwan in the 21st century, Taiwan's water authority has adopted several methodologies, such as utilizing ecological engineering techniques, establishing integrated water resources management configuration, involving the public in decision-making processes, etc., and applying them in the field. Significant consequences in ecological engineering were obtained in several cases, such as for Ta-Chia Creek, where wire cages, tires, and boulders were installed to improve the stream habitat, and for Wu-Lao Creek, where natural water purification facilities were constructed to reduce river pollution. Although the sustainable methodologies have been widely accepted by hydraulic engineers in Taiwan, lack of engineer-friendly evaluation indices or methods hindered the further progress of river ecological engineering projects. This research applied a non-metric multidimensional–scaling (MDS) analysis to measure the assemblage change of river aquatic habitat. A dike construction project at Chu-Lan Creek was selected for verification in this study. The analyzed results showed that the dike construction project did affect the aquatic habitat in Chu-Lan Creek. The proposed MDS analysis successfully captured the effect of the construction. The MDS method could be used to evaluate the improvement or damage of aquatic habitat by a traditional hydraulic approach or a new ecological hydraulic developed technique in Taiwan.     

Land Use/Cover Change in the Middle Reaches of the Heihe River Basin over 2000-2011 and Its Implications for Sustainable Water Resource Management

The Heihe River Basin (HRB) is a typical arid inland river basin in northwestern China. From the 1960s to the 1990s, the downstream flow in the HRB declined as a result of large, artificial changes in the distribution of water and land and a lack of effective water resource management. Consequently, the ecosystems of the lower reaches of the basin substantially deteriorated. To restore these degraded ecosystems, the Ecological Water Diversion Project (EWDP) was initiated by the Chinese government in 2000. The project led to agricultural and ecological changes in the middle reaches of the basin. In this study, we present three datasets of land use/cover in the middle reaches of the HRB derived from Landsat TM/ETM+ images in 2000, 2007 and 2011. We used these data to investigate changes in land use/cover between 2000 and 2011 and the implications for sustainable water resource management. The results show that the most significant land use/cover change in the middle reaches of the HRB was the continuous expansion of farmland for economic interests. From 2000 to 2011, the farmland area increased by 12.01%. The farmland expansion increased the water resource stress; thus, groundwater was over-extracted and the ecosystem was degraded in particular areas. Both consequences are negative and potentially threaten the sustainability of the middle reaches of the HRB and the entire river basin. Local governments should therefore improve the management of water resources, particularly groundwater management, and should strictly control farmland reclamation. Then, water resources could be ecologically and socioeconomically sustained, and the balance between upstream and downstream water demands could be ensured. The results of this study can also serve as a reference for the sustainable management of water resources in other arid inland river basins.     

Competition and Communal Regulations in the Kombu Kelp (Laminaria angustata) Harvest

Kombu is a kind of seaweed growing in northern Japan. In Hidaka District, Hokkaido Island, it comprises an important source of income. In the harvest of wild kombu, competition among the harvesters tends to be intense because of its high price and the fact that it is a limited resource. About a century ago, severe competition caused resource depletion and decline of kombu quality. Today, however, the resource is used sustainably by the villagers, who observe complex communal regulations for the use of common property. This study examines the ecological role of these regulations in the management of kombu as common property, and demonstrates that these regulations facilitate equal access to the resource, maintaining the unity of the local community, as well as efficient resource use.     

湖北梁子湖流域社会生态系统可持续发展的“安全公正空间”

近年来日益增强的人类活动正逐步威胁着地球生态系统的健康发展,给区域可持续发展及环境保护带来了巨大的挑战。如何在社会经济发展的同时维持安全的生态环境？这是可持续发展研究的一个重要问题。本研究借鉴“安全公正空间”理论框架,以长江中下游地区梁子湖流域为例,综合湖泊沉积记录、环境监测数据和社会经济数据,分析该区域内关键生态-环境过程的现状及居民社会福祉指标达成度(达成度指社会基础指标当前值相对于目标值的完成情况),构建了梁子湖流域社会生态系统可持续发展的“安全公正空间”。结果表明: 梁子湖流域内淡水利用、耕地资源、空气质量、水土保持和化学污染等指标超越了环境上限,处于“危险”状态,未来的环境管理中需重点调控;在社会福祉方面,清洁用水与卫生设施、产业创新维度的达成度相对较低;人均GDP与水土保持和空气质量呈显著负相关,体现了社会经济发展对水、土、气的负面效应。本研究借助多源环境数据,特别是湖泊沉积的长序列数据,有效再现了历史环境变化过程,揭示了流域社会生态系统管理中面临的环境及居民福祉短板,为区域可持续发展提供了重要的参考信息。     

Advancing Science for Water Resources Management

Despite the major advances in science to underpin water resources and river management that have taken place over the past two decades, a need remains to establish a unifying framework that will lead to new, appropriate tools for water resources management. In Europe, this need has been highlighted by the promotion of the Water Framework Directive. From a scientific perspective, key questions focus on the ecological significance of flow variability over a range of timescales and the linkage between flow variability, habitat variability and biological population responses, and the biological interactions among these populations. Creation of scientifically sound tools requires development of knowledge at the level of first principles to realize sustainable developments within the context of adaptive management. Similitude analyses provide a mechanism for upscaling from fine ‘research’ scales to the coarser scales of water resource managers. Lack of appropriate data is the major obstacle to the development of these tools, especially those concerned with large rivers.     

影响祁连山区域地貌-水文系统各地理要素的主成分分析

祁连山区域地貌复杂,从而引起水文系统以及生态系统的复杂性。水文系统是引起生态系统复杂的重要原因之一。对影响祁连山区域地貌——水文系统的9个重要地理要素：即流域盆地的总高度、流域的海拔高度、流域周长、河道总长度、河道总数、平均分叉率、河谷最大坡度(度)、河源数以及流域面积进行了综合分析,将其归为3类,即流域盆地的规模,流域侵蚀状况和流域河系形态。在此基础上,认为若要在以后对影响祁连山区域地貌——水文系统地理要素进行分析时,可以直接选取流域面积,流域盆地出口的海拔高度和河道分叉率作为3类地理要素的代表,进行区域地貌——水文系统分析,从而能够降低分析问题的疑难程度与复杂性。     

Forest river plants and water quality in Ghana

River plants and water chemistry in wet and dry seasons were sampled in a wide range of rivers with variable catchments in the forest zone of Ghana, in order to examine the relationships between the floristic composition within the river and river water and catchment environmental variables.Plant species occurring in the river or on its seasonally flooded banks along 500 m sample stretches were listed in 26 sites. Sample species richness was low (1–17 species per sample, mean 5.9). Only nine species were recorded that are confined to rivers. Cluster analysis defined five floristic groups which differed in catchment area, geology, turbidity and dissolved minerals.Analysis of water chemistry variables by principal components analysis revealed a strong principal gradient (42% of total variance) related to annual rainfall with low ionic concentrations under high rainfall. The second component described seasonal differences in water chemistry. Nitrate and chloride were more concentrated in the dry season, but sulphate and calcium were more concentrated in the wet season.Catchments with higher forest cover yielded more oligotrophic and less turbid water. Catchment geology influenced water chemistry so that sandstone areas yielded clear water, and ancient peneplain areas with bauxitic soil were characterised by exceptionally low silicon concentrations.The association of macrophyte composition with river chemistry and catchment conditions was somewhat tenuous, due to the low number of species, but the low turbidity, oligotrophic rivers under high rainfall and with a high percentage of species-rich forest cover were the more species rich. Prediction of river water quality at the scale of this study are more readily made from a knowledge of catchment rainfall and forest cover than from assessments of river plant composition.     

The influence of the landscape structure within buffer zones,catchment land use and instream environmental variables on mollusc communities in a medium-sized lowland river

The world’s freshwater molluscan fauna is facing unprecedented threats from habitat loss and degradation. Declines in native populations are mostly attributed to the human impact, which results in reduced water quality. The objectives of our survey were to analyse the structure of the mollusc communities in a medium-sized lowland river and to determine the most important environmental variables at different spatial scales, including landscape structure, catchment land use and instream environmental factors that influence their structure. Our survey showed that a medium-sized river, that flows through areas included in the European Ecological Natura 2000 Network Programme of protected sites, provides diverse instream habitats and niches that support 47 mollusc species including Unio crassus, a bivalve of Community interest, whose conservation requires the designation of a special conservation area under the Habitats Directive Natura 2000. This survey showed that mollusc communities are impacted by several environmental variables that act together at multiple scales. The landscape structure within buffer zones, catchment land use and instream environmental variables were all important and influenced the structure of mollusc communities. Therefore, they should all be taken into consideration in the future restoration of the river, future management projects and programmes for the conservation of biodiversity in running waters. The results of this study may be directly applicable for the rehabilitation of river ecosystems and are recommended to stakeholders in their future decision concerning landscape planning, monitoring species and their habitats, conservation plans and management in accordance with the requirements of sustainable development.     

A critique on the water-scarcity weighted water footprint in LCA

The water footprint (WF) has been developed within the water resources research community as a volumetric measure of freshwater appropriation. The concept is used to assess water use along supply chains, sustainability of water use within river basins, efficiency of water use, equitability of water allocation and dependency on water in the supply chain. With the purpose of integrating the WF in life cycle assessment of products, LCA scholars have proposed to weight the original volumetric WF by the water scarcity in the catchment where the WF is located, thus obtaining a water-scarcity weighted WF that reflects the potential local environmental impact of water consumption. This paper provides an elaborate critique on this proposal. The main points are: (1) counting litres of water use differently based on the level of local water scarcity obscures the actual debate about water scarcity, which is about allocating water resources to competing uses and depletion at a global scale; (2) the neglect of green water consumption ignores the fact that green water is scarce as well; (3) since water scarcity in a catchment increases with growing overall water consumption in the catchment, multiplication of the consumptive water use of a specific process or activity with water scarcity implies that the resultant weighted WF of a process or activity will be affected by the WFs of other processes or activities, which cannot be the purpose of an environmental performance indicator; (4) the LCA treatment of the WF is inconsistent with how other environmental footprints are defined; and (5) the Water Stress Index, the most cited water scarcity metric in the LCA community, lacks meaningful physical interpretation. It is proposed to incorporate the topic of freshwater scarcity in LCA as a “natural resource depletion” category, considering depletion from a global perspective. Since global freshwater demand is growing while global freshwater availability is limited, it is key to measure the comparative claim of different products on the globe's limited accessible and usable freshwater flows.     

Measuring riparian condition: A comparison of assessments by landholders and scientists

Summary   To a large extent, the condition of riparian areas in Australia is determined by the management actions of private landholders. In this study, we discuss findings from our research in the Goulburn Broken Catchment comparing landholder and scientist assessments of the condition of riparian areas. We interviewed 33 landholders and undertook ecological condition assessments at 38 sites on privately managed river frontages. Using mail survey data that included landholder assessments of riparian condition, we were then able to compare landholder and scientist assessments. Despite substantial effort in this catchment to improve riparian condition, the riparian zones sampled were generally in poor condition. Landholder and scientist assessments of ecological condition showed a significant positive correlation. This indicated broad agreement, despite some substantial differences in assessment of some components of the condition score. Disparities between scientist and landholder assessments were related to the estimation of native ground cover, leaf litter cover and tree canopy continuity within riparian zones. The capacity of this simple assessment tool to differentiate varying levels of riparian zone degradation demonstrates the potential utility of mailed, self-assessment surveys to inform management programs and decisions about the allocation of resources for restoration efforts.     

Odense Pilot River Basin: implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive in a shallow eutrophic estuary (Odense Fjord,Denmark) and its upstream catchment

Implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) is a huge environmental management challenge for Europe, demanding an integrated sustainable approach to water management and a common objective of obtaining ‘good status’ for all water bodies before 2015. The main task is the preparation of a river basin management plan for each of the 96 European river basin districts before the end of 2009. In Odense River Basin (island of Fyn, Denmark), one of 14 appointed European Pilot River Basins, the implementation of the WFD has been developed and tested in practice. Reference conditions and ecological status classification for Odense Fjord, based on eelgrass (Zostera marina) depth limit and nutrient concentrations, have been drawn up through a combination of historical data and modelling tools. A subsequent quantitative linking of pressures and impact, in casu between land-based nitrogen (N) loading of the fjord and resulting nutrient concentrations and eelgrass appearance, provided an estimate of the needed nitrogen load reduction of the fjord. This amounted to approx. 1,200 tonnes N per year (an annual load reduction of ca. 11 kg N ha^?1 of catchment area or ca. 19.5 g N m^?2 of fjord surface)—a load reduction of ca. 60% from the present level—to obtain at least ‘good’ ecological status sensu WFD. It is presently not possible to quantify a target load for phosphorus (P) in relation to marine environmental objectives. An economically feasible programme of measures to obtain ‘good’ status in all surface water and groundwater bodies in Odense River Basin, using an integrated cost-effectiveness analysis, showed that re-establishment of wetlands, catchcrops, and reduced fertilisation norms are the most effective measures if large reductions in N loads to the aquatic environment are to be achieved. The total socio-economic cost of implementing the WFD in the river basin amounts to about 13 million €/year, which will increase the expense for water services by only 0.5–0.6% of the total income and production value in the basin (15,650 million €/year). Investments to obtain the needed nitrogen load reductions from agriculture are thus economically feasible. Further, it is not an impossible task, either economically or technically, to reach the objectives of the WFD while still retaining the possibility of keeping a high agricultural production in the catchment (maintaining livestock production but decreasing crop production in the case of Odense River Basin). The future conditions in Odense Fjord will not only depend on the success in reducing the load from the river basin area, but will also be affected by the trend in the nutrient loss from the whole Baltic catchment area. The high growth rates in the new EU Member States thus pose an important challenge to water managers, and decoupling of economic growth from pressure on water bodies will be necessary. Finally, a number of challenges facing water managers around the Baltic and within the EU, namely preconditions required to successfully implement the WFD, are presented.     

Macroinvertebrate conservation in river ecosystems: Challenges,restoration strategies,and integrated management approaches

River ecosystems face growing threats from human-induced stressors, resulting in habitat degradation and biodiversity loss. Crucial to these ecosystems, macroinvertebrates maintain river health and functioning. In this review, we examine the challenges confronting macroinvertebrates, explore restoration strategies and management approaches, and shed light on knowledge gaps and future research directions. Habitat degradation, water pollution, climate change, and invasive species are discussed as key challenges. Various restoration strategies, such as in-stream habitat restoration, flow regime restoration, riparian zone restoration, and connectivity restoration, are evaluated for macroinvertebrate conservation. Integrated catchment management, adaptive management, community-based management, monitoring, and policy integration are highlighted as essential management approaches, and knowledge gaps in long-term monitoring, innovative restoration techniques, climate change resilience, and policy incorporation are identified as areas calling for further research. Ultimately, a proactive, adaptable, and cooperative approach to river management will ensure macroinvertebrate conservation and sustainable river ecosystems.     

Recognition of Aboriginal rights, interests and values in river research and management: Perspectives from northern Australia

Summary Aboriginal people perceive land and water as equal components of country, and hold distinct perspectives on water relating to identity and attachment to place, environmental knowledge, resource security, and the exercise of custodial responsibilities to manage interrelated parts of customary estates. This paper documents Aboriginal perspectives from certain areas in northern Australia, defined as the region of tropical savannas stretching from Townsville to Broome, and offers a number of suggestions for improving current knowledge of Aboriginal values and Aboriginal participation rates in water and catchment management. The paper highlights the cultural significance of rivers and water in selected northern regions, and provides a preliminary outline of research and management priorities as determined by key north Australian Aboriginal land management organizations. Priorities include developing the capacity for collaborative aquatic resource management, conservation of traditional ecological knowledge, riparian resource inventories and threat assessment, as well as improved Aboriginal participation in catchment management and water policy. Although there is a strong north Australian focus to this paper, the issues raised are relevant to water and natural resource management policy throughout Australia.