栎属7种植物种子的发芽抑制物质研究

运用系统溶剂法和生物测定法,以栎属7种植物种子为材料,研究了其种皮、胚(胚及周围部分子叶)和子叶(远离胚端2/3子叶)1.0 g/mL和0.5 g/mL浓度甲醇等浸提液以及各有机相对白菜种子萌发的影响。结果表明:栓皮栎、锐齿栎、蒙古栎、沼生栎和麻栎甲醇浸提液均能显著降低白菜种子发芽率、根长和苗高,且对发芽率的抑制作用逐渐降低;夏栎和房山栎甲醇浸提液对白菜种子发芽率没有显著影响,但对根长和苗高有一定的抑制作用;种子不同部位甲醇浸提液的抑制作用表现为胚>子叶>种皮,且甲醇高浓度浸提液的抑制作用大于低浓度的抑制作用;甲醇相对白菜种子发芽率、苗高或根长的抑制作用最强,其次是乙酸乙酯相,其它溶剂相萃取液的抑制作用不明显。栎属种子甲醇浸提液及各有机相对白菜种子苗高和根长的抑制作用强于对发芽率的影响,说明栎属种子中所含抑制物质主要是限制自身根和芽的生长,可能是造成延迟萌发和出苗不整齐的原因。     

Partial acorn consumption by small rodents: implication for regeneration of white oak, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus mongolica</Emphasis>

Partial consumption of acorns by rodents, birds, and insects has been widely reported in various oak species. However, to what extent these partially eaten acorns contribute to the regeneration of oak trees is poorly understood. To date, there is limited knowledge of the effects of seed availability on partial consumption of acorns. Herein, we released tagged Quercus mongolica acorns in two consecutive years with different seed crops, to explore the probability of partial acorn consumption. We also placed simulated partially consumed acorns in the field to investigate their contribution to regeneration of white oak. Our results showed that more acorns were partially eaten in a good crop year than in poor crop year, reflecting an effect of predator satiation on acorn partial consumption by rodents at the population level. Partially eaten acorns were more likely to be damaged at the basal end, suggesting consistent consumption preferences of small rodents. Although, partially consumed acorns were less likely to be scatter-hoarded by small rodents, they germinated more rapidly than the intact acorns in the field, offsetting the negative effects of the non-buried deposition. Despite lower germination rates, lightly damaged acorns exhibited greater growth of roots and shoots, suggesting a compensatory response to partial acorn consumption. Partial consumption may spread predation pressure on acorns and thus appears to be much better for the plant than total consumption by seed-eating animals. Therefore, partially consumed acorns as dispersal leftovers may play a potential role in natural regeneration of Quercus mongolica, especially in mast years. However, this role and the underlying mechanisms of partial acorn consumption by rodents, birds, and herbivore insects need further investigation.     

Influence of Pericarp,Cotyledon and Inhibitory Substances on Sharp Tooth Oak (Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata) Germination

In order to explore the mechanism of delayed and uneven germination in sharp tooth oak (Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata) (STO), mechanical scarification techniques were used to study STO root and shoot germination and growth. The techniques used were: removing cup scar (RS), removing the pericarp (RP), and cutting off 1/2 (HC) and 2/3 (TC) cotyledons. Germination percentage and root and shoot length for Chinese cabbage (Beassica pekinensis) seeds (CCS) were also investigated for CCS cultivated in a Sanyo growth cabinet watered by distilled water and 80% methanol extracts from the acorn embryo, cotyledon and pericarp with concentrations of 1.0 g, 0.8 g, 0.6 g and 0.4 g dry acorn weight per ml methanol. The results showed that the majority of roots and shoots from acorns with RP and HC treatment emerged two weeks earlier, more simultaneously, and their total emergences were more than 46% and 28% higher, respectively. TC accelerated root and shoot emergence time and root length, but root and shoot germination rate and shoot height had no significant difference from the control. Positive consequences were not observed on all indices of RS treatment. The germination rates of CCS watered by 1.0 g·ml⁻¹ methanol extracts from the embryo and cotyledon were significantly lower than those from the pericarp, and all concentrations resulted in decreased growth of root and shoot. Methanol extracts from pericarp significantly reduced root length of CCS, but presented little response in germination percentage and shoot length. The inhibitory effect was gradually increased with the increasing concentration of the methanol extract. We conclude that both the mechanical restriction of the pericarp and the presence of germination inhibitors in the embryo, cotyledon and pericarp are the causes for delayed and asynchronous germination of STO acorns.     

Growth and survival of cork oak (Quercus suber) seedlings after simulated partial cotyledon consumption under different soil nutrient contents

Aims

We examined the importance of partial seed consumption (cotyledon loss) by rabbits in the early establishment of seedlings of cork oaks restricted to nutrient-impoverished soils.

Methods

To determine the importance of cotyledons in the growth and development of seedlings, we simulated two levels of predation [light (30 % cotyledon loss) and heavy (60 % loss) partial consumption] and two soil nutrient contents (nutrient-poor soil, nutrient-rich soil). Seedlings height, root length, dry root and shoot biomass, specific leaf mass, leaf density, gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters and photosynthetic pigment concentrations were determined.

Results

Results indicated that effect of nutrient level on the growth of the oak seedlings was more important than that of cotyledon biomass. However, in nutrient–poor soils, cotyledon biomass played a major role in the early performance of cork oaks. Acorns grown in nutrient-rich substrate, despite having greater aerial vigor, were slower to develop a vertical root, and hence less likely to reach permanent moisture. Cotyledon loss caused a decrease in the biomass of roots and shoots when acorns were heavily consumed, and as a result experienced a reduction in net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance and chlorophyll concentration. Survival of seedlings was unaffected by either soil type or cotyledon loss.

Conclusions

Our results show that effects of soil type on the survival of oak seedlings were more important than those of cotyledon biomass. However, in a competitive situation, cotyledon biomass, as an indicative of growth nutrient support rather than an energy source, could be vital in a nutrient-poor environment, particularly in Mediterranean climate regions and for species with little inherent drought tolerance (as is the case of Quercus spp.), where rapid root growth is required to ensure that contact with soil moisture is maintained over the first summer.     

Determinant factors in the seedling establishment of Pasania edulis (Makino) Makino

Pasania edulis (Makino) Makino is one of the dominant Fagucea tree species in evergreen broad-leaved forests in southern Japan, and its regeneration success may have a major impact on the dynamics of evergreen broad-leaved forests. We conducted a field survey on the population process from acorn production to seedling establishment of P. edulis in an evergreen broad-leaved forest in Kagoshima, southern Japan, from 1995 to 2009. The acorn crop varied greatly among the 14 cohorts, with mast cropping being recorded every 3–4 years. The mortality rate of acorns was very high for all 14 cohorts (99.3–100 %). Important mortality factors were failure to mature (empty acorns), attack by Curculio weevil on trees, predation of dropped acorns by Apodemus mice and large or medium-sized mammals (wild boar (Sus scrofa leucomystax), badger (Meles meles anakuma), and raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides viverrinu)), and attacks on germinated acorns by the acorn borer (Coccotrypes graniceps). Among these factors, predation by Apodemus mice was the greatest contributor to annual fluctuations in total mortality until seedling establishment. Large or medium-sized mammals and the acorn borer also caused severe damage to dropped acorns in some years, but contributed little to annual fluctuations in total mortality. For successful regeneration, mast cropping was essential. However, a small population of Apodemus mice, that is, a low predation pressure, was also required during mast years.     

Multi-trophic effects of ungulate intraguild predation on acorn weevils

Predators and parasitoids may contribute to controlling the population sizes of phytophagous insects, and this has been shown to benefit plants. Phytophagous insects may also be killed by other herbivores (intraguild predation), usually larger-sized vertebrates that ingest insects accidentally while feeding on common food sources. We studied the intraguild predation on acorn weevils by ungulates and assessed the consequences for weevil populations. Infested acorns are prematurely abscised and the weevil larvae finish their development inside the acorns after being dropped. Our results show that weevil larvae were killed by ungulates eating the infested acorns on the ground. Ungulates did not discriminate between infested and sound acorns, and the probability of a larva being incidentally eaten was inversely related to acorn availability. Thus, predation risk was enhanced by the premature drop of infested acorns when acorn availability on the ground was low. Predation rates on infested acorns were much higher where ungulates were present, and acorn infestation rates were significantly lower. However, ungulates did not provide the oaks any net benefit, since the reduction of infestation rates was not enough to compensate for the large amounts of sound acorns eaten by ungulates. Seed predation is usually studied as a progressive loss of seeds by pre- and post-dispersal predators, but the interactions between them are usually not considered. We show that intraguild predation on insects by large ungulates had an effect on the structure of the foraging guild, as the proportion of acorns predated by insects decreased; however, replicating the same experimental design in different ecological scenarios would increase the strength of these results. In conclusion, the present study shows the importance of considering the multi-trophic interactions between seed predators in order to have a complete picture of granivory.     

Predicting forest management effects on oak–rodent mutualisms

Wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus are the main dispersers of acorns in highly managed Mediterranean holm‐oak woodlands. Mice mobilize and cache acorns to store them for winter consumption. They carry acorns away from potential competitors, face predation risks during mobilization, and cache acorns in areas where pilfering risks are low. However, mice can act either as net predators or as moderately efficient dispersers, depending on the way landscape management affects intraspecific competition for acorns and shelter availability. To assess the influence of landscape structure and mouse behavior on acorn dispersal, we developed an agent‐based model (ABM) that translates forest management into changes in key environmental factors driving mouse foraging decisions. The model was able to predict accurately acorn dispersal patterns in a wide range of forest management practices based on information on forest habitat availability, stem density and shrub cover. Sensitivity analysis revealed that caching rates emerged from the interplay between intraspecific competition for seeds and predation risk accepted during mobilization. It also showed that intraspecific competition for acorns decreased with increasing habitat loss (due to positive edge effects on acorn production) while landscape resistance to mouse movements increased. As a result, the net benefits of caching declined and acorn predation became the dominant strategy. Finally, we assessed the effects of shrub encroachment as a management practice to enhance dispersal services in savanna‐like landscapes (dehesas). The model predicted non‐linear responses with a 65% threshold of shrub cover needed to achieve relatively high levels of acorn dispersal. This value may not be compatible with the traditional exploitation of dehesas (livestock rearing). Our study shows that integrated approaches that combine environmental change driven by management with behavioral responses of dispersers improve our understanding of the causes of recruitment bottlenecks, and are useful tools for evaluating conservation strategies aimed at enhancing dispersal services.     

Microhabitat affects acorn removal in three sympatric and endangered Neotropical oak species

Acorn removal and predation are processes that can influence forest dynamics and the ecological niche segregation of sympatric oak species. Different factors affect these processes, including differences in acorn germination rate and exposure to predators and/or dispersers. This study evaluated acorn removal and predation patterns in three threatened tropical cloud forest oak species (Quercus germana, Quercus sartorii and Quercus cortesii). Acorns were placed in two accessibility treatments (open to all potential acorn consumers vs. accessible to mice only) and in two types of microhabitat (covered by trunks, shrubs and herbaceous plants vs. uncovered). In addition, acorn germination rate was evaluated in a greenhouse. After 130 days, 76.67 ± 2.45 % of the seeds had been removed and the two accessibility treatments did not differ significantly. Mice were therefore shown as important predators and/or dispersers of acorns. Removal was greater in the covered (93.33 ± 2.04 %) compared to the uncovered (60.00 ± 4.01 %; P < 0.05) microhabitat. Acorn removal and germination were highest for Q. germana (82.00 ± 3.86 %, 91.67 ± 4.41 %, respectively), followed by Q. sartorii (79.00 ± 4.09 %; 50.00 ± 7.64 %) and Q. cortesii (69.00 ± 4.64 %; 13.33 ± 4.41 %); the same trend was recorded in the acorn germination rate (P < 0.05). Our findings suggest that uncovered sites with partial shade might function as regeneration microhabitats where less acorn removal and higher germination occur. The implications of differential acorn trait preferences by rodents for the coexistence of these oak species are discussed.     

东灵山地区动物对辽东栎坚果的捕食和传播Ⅰ.排除啮齿目动物对坚果丢失的影响

动物对辽东栎(Quercus liaotungensis Koidz.)坚果的捕食被认为是影响辽东栎坚果命运的主要因素,因此直接影响幼苗的建立和自然更新。在东灵山一个落叶阔叶林中调查了辽东栎坚果被脊椎动物转运和就地消耗状况。在排除部分小型啮齿目动物前后,辽东栎坚果的丢失动态曲线不同。到实验结束时,基本上所有放置的辽东栎坚果都消失了。排除动物前的曲线上有一个拐点,而排除动物后的丢失曲线上有多个拐点。两曲线相似的地方是：最初一两天辽东栎坚果的丢失非常迅速。排除小型啮齿目动物对辽东栎坚果的丢失有影响,然而坚果尺寸和微生境条件对坚果的丢失没有影响。任意2个因子的交互作用以及3个因子的交互作用对辽东栎坚果的丢失也都没有影响。排除啮齿目动物和坚果尺寸对辽东栎坚果的就地消耗有影响,微生境以及其它因子的交互作用对坚果的就地消耗没有影响。在9月份3d捕鼠的时间里,共捕到啮齿目动物3种：大林姬鼠(Apodemus speciosus)、社鼠(Niviveniter confucianus )和花鼠(Tantias sibiricus)。研究结果表明,尽管啮齿目动物的排除能够降低辽东栎坚果的丢失速度,但它们(或者和其它的脊椎动物一起)有足够的能力将辽东栎坚果捕食或搬运到其它地方分散埋藏或将它们搬运到它们的洞穴中用作漫长冬季的主要食物来源。     

Acorn crop size and pre-dispersal predation determine inter-specific differences in the recruitment of co-occurring oaks

The contribution of pre-dispersal seed predation to inter-specific differences in recruitment remains elusive. In species with no resistance mechanisms, differences in pre-dispersal predation may arise from differences in seed abundance (plant satiation) or in the ability of seeds to survive insect infestation (seed satiation). This study aimed to analyse the impact of pre-dispersal acorn predation by weevils in two co-occurring Mediterranean oaks (Quercus ilex and Quercus humilis) and to compare its relevance with other processes involved in recruitment. We monitored the patterns of acorn production and acorn infestation by weevils and we conducted experimental tests of acorn germination after weevil infestation, post-dispersal predation and seedling establishment in mixed forests. Monitoring and experimental data were integrated in a simulation model to test for the effects of pre-dispersal predation in recruitment. In both oaks pre-dispersal acorn infestation decreased with increasing acorn crop size (plant satiation). This benefited Q. ilex which exhibited stronger masting behaviour than Q. humilis, with almost a single and outstanding reproductive event in 6 years. Acorn infestation was more than twice as high in Q. humilis (47.0%) as in Q. ilex (20.0%) irrespective of the number of seeds produced by each species. Although germination of infested acorns (seed satiation) was higher in Q. humilis (60%) than in Q. ilex (21%), this could barely mitigate the higher infestation rate in the former species, to reduce seed loss. Conversely to pre-dispersal predation, no inter-specific differences were observed either in post-dispersal predation or seedling establishment. Our results indicate that pre-dispersal predation may contribute to differences in seed supply, and ultimately in recruitment, between co-existing oaks. Moreover, they suggest that seed satiation can barely offset differences in seed infestation rates. This serves as a warning against overemphasising seed satiation as a mechanism to overcome seed predation by insects. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Incorporating insect infestation into rodent seed dispersal: better if the larva is still inside

Many nutritious seeds are commonly attacked by insects which feed on the seed reserves. However, studies have not fully explored the ecological implications of insect infestation in animal seed dispersal and subsequent plant regeneration. Our question is whether the fact that an infested seed still contains the larva or not might increase/decrease the probability of being successfully dispersed by animals. This study examines the effects of weevil-infested seeds on the natural regeneration of a rodent-dispersed oak species. Rodents showed a high ability to discriminate between sound and infested seeds, even when the larva was still inside. As a result, rodents caused differential seed dispersal for sound and infested seeds by modifying multiple aspects of the dispersal process. We found that, for the same seed weight, infested acorns with a larva still inside can contribute to natural regeneration (0.7?% of seedlings in next summer), although in comparison to sound acorns they suffered higher predation rates by rodents (both partial and complete), were removed later from the ground (less preferred), cached less frequently, and dispersed to shorter distances, which reduced their potential to colonize new environments. However, infested seeds with exit holes are notably less preferred by rodents and, when dispersed, they are mostly deposited on the litter (uncached) with shorter dispersal distances and lower emergence success. Thus, the probability that larval-holed acorns will produce viable seedlings is extremely low (null in this study). Whether infested seeds still contain a larva or not clearly determines the probability of being successfully dispersed. Premature seed drop prolongs the presence of the larva inside the acorn after seed drop, and could be a possible mechanism to allow dispersal of infested seeds.     

Context dependence of acorn handling by the Algerian mouse (Mus spretus)

Perceived predation risk and competition for acorns are expected to affect scatter-hoarding decisions by Algerian mice (Mus spretus). We manipulated both factors by means of predator fecal scents and ungulate exclosures. We hypothesized that high-risk perception and ungulate presence would promote acorn dispersal. In the former case, it would stimulate acorn mobilization to safe microhabitats rather than in situ consumption. In the latter, increased competition for acorns would promote their storage for later consumption. We also expected that mice would adapt their foraging behavior to previous experience modulating the strength of these effects.In the presence of ungulates, mice focused their foraging activities on food acquisition at the expenses of vigilant behaviors. However, a more efficient foraging did not entail enhanced dispersal services. Lack of anti-predatory cover in tree surroundings may have deterred mice from transporting seeds outside canopies. Increased risk interacted with previous experience. In control trees (no predator odor), mice confidence increased throughout the night resulting in decreased vigilance and enhanced acorn mobilization rates. In contrast, in risky conditions (trees with predator odor) mice maintained a base-line vigilant behavior. Contrary to our expectations, increased risk did not result in higher acorn mobilization, but the opposite. Again, the scarcity of safe microhabitats for mobilization may have been the underlying cause of this behavior.Our results show that successful acorn dispersal depends, at least partly, on plant-animal relationships that are beyond the oak-rodent mutualism. Thus, any conservation policy aimed at restoring natural regeneration of oaks should take into account the interaction network in which oak-rodent encounters are embedded. In addition, they suggest that mice incorporate direct and indirect cues of risks (habitat structure) through recent experience. A better understanding of this process will improve our ability to incorporate such temporal and spatial variability in models of acorn dispersal.     

Satiation of predispersal seed predators: the importance of considering both plant and seed levels

Plants can reduce the fitness costs of granivory by satiating seed predators. The most common satiation mechanism is the production of large crops, which ensures that a proportion of the seeds survive predation. Nevertheless, satiation of small granivores at the seed level may also exist. Larger seeds would satiate more efficiently, enhancing the probability of seed survival after having been attacked. However, a larger seed size could compromise the efficiency of satiation by means of large crops if there were a negative relationship between seed size and the number of seeds produced by an individual plant. We analyze both types of satiation in the interaction between the holm oak Quercus ilex and the chestnut weevil Curculio elephas. Both crop size and acorn size differed strongly in a sample of 32 trees. Larger crop sizes satiated weevils, and higher proportions of the seeds were not attacked as crop size increased. Larger seeds also satiated weevil larvae, as a larger acorn size increased the likelihood of embryo survival. Seedling size was strongly related to acorn size and was reduced by weevil attack, but seedlings coming from large weeviled acorns were still larger. The number and the size of the acorns produced by individual trees were negatively related. Larger proportions of the crop were infested in oaks producing less numerous crops of larger acorns. However, contrary to expectations, these trees did not satiate more effectively at the seed level either. Effective satiation by larger acorns was precluded by larger multi-infestation rates associated to smaller seed crops, in such a way that the proportion of attacked seeds that survived did not vary among trees with different acorn sizes. These results highlight the need of considering satiation by means of large crops and large seeds in studies of predispersal seed predation. Long-term monitoring on individual oaks will help to assess whether there is a trade-off between the number and the size of the acorns and, if it existed, how it could condition the fitness consequences of both types of satiation.     

Species-specific effects on topsoil development affect Quercus ilex seedling performance

We illustrate experimentally the importance of species-specificity in the soil-mediated interactions among plants inhabiting heterogeneous landscapes. Topsoils from nine microhabitats were used to experimentally grow Quercus ilex acorns in the laboratory. We recorded germination, emergence, acorn left and seedling performance (HGR, biomass and root allocation). Different topsoils had very contrasting physico-chemical properties, creating a heterogeneous arena. This heterogeneity translated to differences in seedling performance, since emergence and survival differed among topsoils. However, nutrient content in topsoils did not appear to benefit seedling performance. In addition, there were strong correlations among parameters of plant performance indicating a consistency of the effect of topsoil type on Q. ilex seedlings. This implies that it is crucial to consider the specificity of the interaction between plants to wholly understand the structure of plant communities. Species-specific interactions may play an important role in the organization and dynamic of plants spatial distribution.     

昆虫蛀蚀对鼠类介导下的锐齿槲栎种子扩散的影响

森林鼠类的种子贮藏行为对植物的扩散和自然更新有着非常重要的影响。然而,鼠类是否具有鉴别虫蛀种子的能力还存在一定的争议。此外,鼠类的鉴别能力是否受到食物丰富度变化的影响也未见相关报道。采用标签标记法,2011年秋季(9—11月,食物丰富季节)和2012年春季(4—6月,食物匮乏季节)分别在秦岭南坡的佛坪国家级自然保护区内,调查了森林鼠类对完好和虫蛀锐齿槲栎(Quercus aliena)种子的选择差异。结果显示:1)在秋季,尽管2种类型种子的存留动态没有显著差异,但是在后期虫蛀种子的存留时间相对更长;而在春季2种类型种子的存留动态则极为显著,几乎所有的完好种子(99%)在释放后的第3天就被鼠类全部扩散,虫蛀种子的存留时间则相对较长。2)在秋季,鼠类更喜好扩散后取食完好种子;而在春季,鼠类则喜好在原地取食绝大部分的种子,并且优先取食完好种子。3)在秋季,鼠类贮藏了更多的完好种子;而在春季,尽管完好种子在释放后第1天便达到贮藏高峰,然而由于后期的大量被捕食,2种类型种子在贮藏动态上没有显示出显著差异。研究结果表明秦岭地区森林鼠类可以准确区分完好与虫蛀种子,但是食物丰富度会影响鼠类对种子的选择策略。在食物丰富的秋季,鼠类更多地选择贮藏完好种子;而在食物相对匮乏的春季,鼠类更倾向于同时取食2种类型种子。森林鼠类通过对2种类型种子的鉴别和选择,影响不同种子的命运,从而可能对种子的扩散和自然更新产生重要影响。     

北京东灵山落叶阔叶林中辽东栎种子雨

在北京东灵山地区的一个落叶阔叶林中调查了辽东栎（Ｑｕｅｒｃｕｓ ｌｉａｏｔｕｎｇｅｎｓｉｓ Ｋｏｉｄｚ．）的种子雨。对于选定的４棵辽东栎中的３棵,树冠下的种子雨分布格局符合二次分布,具有很高的决定系数。由设置在树冠下的种子捕捉器收集的坚果数量来估计整棵树的种子雨。４棵树的种子雨中有活力的种子很少,变化范围从２６到２５９个。每棵树的树冠下的种子雨密度变化范围从０．７６到７．２６个／ｍ＾２。林中平均种     

人工埋藏植物种子对鼠类采食下辽东栎坚果存活及萌发率的影响

辽东栎林（Q. liaotungensis)是北京东灵山地区典型地带植被。过去研究表明,鼠类对辽东栎更新有很大影响。本研究主要调查3个问题：（1）采食辽东栎坚果的鼠类种类;（2）将坚果埋藏于土中能否减少鼠类对坚果的采食,并提高出苗率？（3）地表植被是否影响辽东栎的出苗率？1996年9月在北京东灵山地区山地选取5个类型的样地37块,每样地在地表放置10粒坚果,检查地表种子消失率。使用木板夹来调查采食坚果的鼠类种类,诱饵分别为坚果和花生米。于1997年10月,选取5块样地,间隔25 m,每样地在1m²范围内埋50粒坚果,深度5 cm,次年5月调查出苗情况。研究结果表明,大林姬鼠、社鼠和黑线姬鼠为取食坚果的主要种类,取食比例与其丰富度有关。370粒坚果放在地表后,1d、10d、20d的消失率分别达15.1%、78.1%、和 100%。250粒坚果埋入土层后,出苗率达11.2%,苗平均高度为7.8cm,出苗率与地表植被盖度有一定负相关。本研究认为,人工埋藏植物种子可以减少鼠类捕食坚果,并能增加其出苗率。     

Tracking animal-mediated seedling establishment from dispersed acorns with the aid of the attached cotyledons

Various methods have been used to track seed dispersal of large-seeded species; however, the influence of different seed tracking methods on ecological outcomes of seed dispersal by animals is not well evaluated. Acorn removal by food hoarding animals and the following seedling establishment of Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica) were investigated in Xiaoxing’anling Mountain, Heilongjiang, northeastern China, by using four different marking methods: plastic tagging, nail insertion, hole drilling, and isotope labeling. The acorn removal speed differed among marking methods, with plastic-tagged acorns being removed more slowly than those marked with nails, holes, and isotope. By checking the attached cotyledons and performing isotope analyses, more seedlings were found to establish from nailed acorns and isotope-soaked acorns than from drilled acorns and plastic-tagged acorns. Plastic-tagged acorns were transported closer than those marked with nails, holes, and isotope. Moreover, seedlings were often found clustered in caches containing acorns marked with plastic tags. Low level of cotyledon predation by animals makes it possible to directly identify focal seedlings of white oaks based on the attached cotyledons. Considering cotyledon predation by animals, coupling minor modification of cotyledons with isotope labeling appears to be an easy way to explore the actual pattern of seed dispersal of large-seeded trees, e.g., oaks.     

Prolonged diapause and seed predation by the acorn weevil,Curculio robustus,in relation to masting of the deciduous oak Quercus acutissima

Many researchers have studied the relationship between masting by trees and seed predation by insects. Most of these studies have been plant centered, with little focus on the insect perspective. To estimate the effect of mast seeding on insect seed predators, the life‐history traits of these insects must also be considered because some seed insects can survive lean years by prolonged diapause. In this study, I examined larval infestation of acorns and life‐history traits of the acorn weevil, Curculio robustus (Roelofs) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), in relation to acorn production of the deciduous oak Quercus acutissima Carruthers (Fagaceae) in a coppice stand in central Japan in 2004–2009. Curculio robustus females oviposit into Q. acutissima acorns, inside which the larvae develop. Mature larvae leave acorns and burrow into the soil, where they overwinter. Although germination did occur in acorns infested by weevil larvae, the percentage of germination was lower in acorns damaged by many larvae. Acorn production in Q. acutissima varied considerably among years. Both the number of C. robustus larvae infesting acorns and the percentage of acorns infested were affected by the amount of acorns produced by Q. acutissima, and two successive lean years appeared to have a considerable impact on C. robustus population size. Consequently, only a small fraction of the acorns produced were lost to predation in a mast year after two successive lean years. However, C. robustus could survive the two successive lean years because of prolonged larval diapause, probably leading to a marked decrease in population size. These findings suggest that masting in Q. acutissima succeeds as a predator satiation strategy in response to acorn damage by C. robustus, and that C. robustus has developed prolonged diapause as a counter‐adaptation.     

Acorn Pericarp Removal as a Cache Management Strategy of the Siberian Chipmunk,Tamias sibiricus

Numerous recent studies have revealed a variety of behavioral adaptations of rodents for maximizing returns from cached seeds. Herein we report on a novel behavior by the Siberian chipmunk (Tamias sibiricus) in northeastern China, by which they consistently remove the pericarp (shell) of Quercus mongolica acorns before dispersing and caching these nuts. We investigated the effects of pericarp removal on acorn germination, tannin concentrations, cache pilferage, and insect damage, to determine if and how pericarp removal facilitates cache management by Siberian chipmunks and whether or not such behavior influences seed fates. Chipmunks cached acorns only after the pericarps were removed. Chipmunks preferred pericarp‐removed acorns over intact acorns when removing them from seed stations for both consumption and caching. Pericarp removal did not affect germination or tannin concentration of cached Q. mongolica acorns, suggesting that the behavior is not an adaptation for long‐term storage and tannin decomposition. Acetone treatments of the pericarp and artificial pericarp removal failed to alter pilferage rates by Siberian chipmunks and wood mice (Apodemus peninsulae). Since damage of acorns by weevils often leads to cache losses, we also tested the effects of weevil infestation on cache decision following pericarp removal. Siberian chipmunks removed pericarps and then scatter hoarded significantly more sound than weevil‐infested acorns, strongly suggesting that pericarp removal is used to discriminate between the infested and non‐infested acorns. Thus, we argue that the primary function of this behavior is to ensure successful storage of sound acorns, at least for short‐term storage. Future studies should consider the potential impact of pericarp removal on weevil populations and long‐term patterns of seed survival and establishment from the Siberian chipmunk’s caches.