微生物谷氨酰胺转胺酶的表达及分子改造研究进展

微生物谷氨酰胺转胺酶具有催化蛋白质和某些非蛋白物质交联的功能,被广泛应用于食品、医药及纺织等领域.为提高该酶的产量及建立相应的分子改造平台,上世纪90年代日本味之素公司便开展了微生物谷氨酰胺转胺酶重组菌构建的研究.目前,该酶已在多个表达系统中实现活性表达,部分重组菌较野生菌的产酶能力有显著提高.近年来,谷氨酰胺转胺酶的分子改造研究也取得了初步进展,酶的催化活力、热稳定性及底物专一性得到提升.文中对上述研究中涉及的蛋白质表达及改造策略进行了简要的总结及分析,并指出相关研究的发展趋势.     

“微生物发酵法生产谷氨酰胺转胺酶”通过鉴定

具有“2 1世纪超级粘合剂”美称的谷氨酰胺转胺酶 (蛋白质 谷氨酸 γ 谷氨酰胺转移酶 ,ＥＣ2 .3 .2 .1 3 ) ,是一种可生产出满足人们需求的新型蛋白食品的重要酶制剂。它能够催化蛋白质分子内的交联、分子间的交联、蛋白质和氨基酸之间的连接以及蛋白质分子内谷氨酰胺酰基的水解 ,因而在食品工业、化妆品工业和制药工业中具有广泛的用途。源于动物的谷氨酰胺转胺酶价格较高 ,采用发酵法生产可望大幅度降低其生产成本 ,故而是拓宽谷氨酰胺转胺酶应用范围的根本途径。在日本 ,谷氨酰胺转胺酶已成为食品工业的第二大酶种 ,其用量仅次于α 淀粉…     

谷氨酰胺转氨酶研究进展

谷氨酰胺转氨酶是一种催化酰基转移反应的转移酶,它可使蛋白分子间和分子内产生共价交联,从而改变蛋白的功能特性,在食品、医药、化妆品、纺织等领域具有重要的潜在应用价值。研究表明,谷氨酰胺转氨酶广泛存在于生物组织中。为了更好的研究开发这一资源,对谷氨酰胺转氨酶的来源、理化特性、作用机制、功能以及工业生产的现状进行了综述,其中重点探讨了不同来源的谷氨酰胺转氨酶在理化特性以及底物特异性方面的差异。     

丙酮破碎法提取重组大肠杆菌表达的转谷氨酰胺酶酶原

以茂原链霉菌(Streptomyces mobaraensis)的基因组DNA为模板,PCR扩增出转谷氨酰胺酶酶原基因(pro-transglutaminase,pro-TG)),PCR产物连接到pMDl8-T克隆载体后亚克隆到表达载体pET-22b(+),转化到表达宿主大肠杆菌BL2l(DE3).重组大肠杆菌经IPTG诱导后,转谷氨酰胺酶酶原(pro-TG)主要以可溶性蛋白表达.菌体离心后用丙酮高速搅拌破碎细胞,亲和层析成功地纯化到了转谷氨酰胺酶酶原.转谷氨酰胺酶酶原经胰蛋白酶切割激活后其酶活为502.8 U/g CDM(菌体干重).采用BSA交联试验证实成熟的转谷氨酰胺酶(TG)具有功能.采用丙酮破碎法提取重组大肠杆菌表达的转谷氨酰胺酶酶原对大规模工业化生产转谷氨酰胺酶进行了有益的探索.     

枯草杆菌谷氨酰胺转胺酶的克隆及其在大肠杆菌中的融合表达

利用PCR技术 ,从枯草杆菌DB40 3染色体上扩增出谷氨酰胺转胺酶基因 ,将其克隆到大肠杆菌载体pET32a( + )中 ,成功构建谷氨酰胺转胺酶表达载体pET32-BTGase ,并转化大肠杆菌BL2 1 (DE3)。重组克隆在IPTG诱导下 ,表达出硫氧还蛋白 谷氨酰胺转胺酶 (Trx-BTGase)融合蛋白 ,表达量占细菌总蛋白量的 2 6%。利用金属螯合层析纯化菌体裂解上清中表达的融合蛋白 ,纯度超过 80 %,再通过分子筛层析进一步纯化得到融合蛋白纯品。酶活性分析表明表达的Trx-BTGase融合蛋白具有交联蛋白的活性 ,并发现Trx-BTGase融合蛋白和经凝血酶酶切后得到的BTGase单体都能催化牛血清白蛋白的聚合反应     

谷氨酰胺转胺酶—理化性质、生产方法及其在食品工业中的应用

谷氨酰胺转胺酶(蛋白质-谷氨酸-γ谷氨酰胺转移酶EC2.3.2.13)催化体外大多数食品蛋白质的交联反应,如:酪蛋白,大豆蛋白,肌球蛋白,肌动蛋白,谷蛋白,禽蛋蛋白等等。通过催化肽键谷酰胺基残基的酰基转移反应,在各种蛋白质分子之间或之内形成ε-(γ-谷胺酰)赖氨酸键,从而改善各种蛋白质的功能性质。如:营养价值、质地结构、口感、贮存期等等。目前,商业化谷氨酰胺转胺酶主要从动物组织中提取,但由于其分离和纯化过程较复杂,且来源稀少,因而价格昂贵,近年来,人们开始转向于研究利用微生物发酵来生产谷氨酰胺转胺酶,并使之应用于食品工业,经过微生物谷氨酰胺转胺酶处理后的食品,其功能性质明显改善。本文就谷氨酰胺转胺酶的国内外研究现状作一综述,主要包括理化性质、生产及其应用。     

谷氨酰胺转胺酶—理化性质，生产方法及其在食品工业中的应用

谷氨酰胺转胺酶（蛋白质－谷氨酸－γ谷氨酰胺转移酶EC2,3,2,13）催化体外大多数食品蛋白质的交联反应,如：酪蛋白,大豆蛋白,肌球蛋白,肌动蛋白,谷蛋白,禽蛋蛋白等等。通过催化肽键谷酰胺基残基的酰基转移反应,在各种蛋白质分子之间或之内形成ε-（γ-谷胺酰）赖氨酸键,从而改善各种蛋白质的功能性质,如：营养价值,质地结构,口感,贮存期等等。目前,商业化谷氨酰胺转胺酶主要从动物组织中提取,但由于其分离和纯化过程较复杂,且来源稀少,因而价格昂贵,近年来,人们开始转向于研究利用微生物发酵来生产谷氨酰胺转胺酶,并使之应用于食品工业,经过微生物谷氨酸酰胺转胺酶处理后的食品,其功能性质明显改善,本文就谷氨酰胺转胺酶的国内外研究现状作一综述,主要包括理化性质,生产及其应用。     

羊毛防毡缩用蛋白酶的化学修饰

为减少防毡缩整理中蛋白酶对羊毛纤维主体结构的破坏作用,分别研究了戊二醛、微生物谷氨酰胺转氨酶(MTG)和水溶性碳二亚胺(EDC)对蛋白酶Savinase 16L的化学修饰,以期达到增大蛋白酶分子量,从而将水解作用限制在纤维表面的目的。主要通过体积排阻色谱、SDS-PAGE谱图以及荧光光谱研究修饰酶的分子量和结构变化。结果表明,戊二醛不能对蛋白酶分子进行有效修饰;MTG会被蛋白酶水解,无法催化酶分子间发生共价交联;而碳二亚胺既可以使蛋白酶分子间发生交联,又能将含有伯胺基的大分子修饰剂偶联到酶分子上。     

组织型转谷氨酰胺酶的研究进展

组织型转谷氨酰胺酶（tissue transglutaminase,tTG,TGⅡ）是转谷氨酰胺酶家族成员之一,作为一种多功能的蛋白质,具有催化蛋白质谷氨酰胺残基与赖氨酸残基交联的活性,还能结合和水解GTP,在胞内和胞外产生多种功能,最初由于tTG在细胞凋亡中所起的重要作用而受到研究者的关注,最近的研究更表明它在细胞分化,基质的稳定、伤口愈合、信号转导、动物发育等许多生理和病理过程中起着重要作用,因而受到越来越多的研究。     

多酶共固定化的研究进展

固定化酶技术是现代生物催化的核心技术。过去几十年里,固定化酶技术的研究主要集中在单酶固定化。近年来,多酶共固定化由于具有可增加反应的局部浓度、提高反应收率等优点而得到研究者的广泛关注。本文根据国内外研究现状并结合本实验研究从多酶非特异性共价共固定化、非特异性非共价共固定化、非共价包埋固定化以及位点特异性固定化四个方面阐述多酶固定化方法的研究进展,并分析和展望了其在工业上的应用前景。     

Hemolymph clotting in crustaceans: Implications for neuropeptide extraction from invertebrate hemolymph

The hemolymph of invertebrates contains factors that facilitate clotting as a defense mechanism for injury. However, the clotting process may impair the measurement of hormone titers by interfering with the extraction of peptides. Using hemolymph from freshwater crayfish, our results demonstrate that hemolymph clotting appears to reduce both the amount of an endogenous peptide(s) (Dippu-AST 11-like) extracted from hemolymph, as well as the amount of spiked peptide tracer ([125I]-Dippu-AST 11) recovered from hemolymph. The efficacy of peptide extraction from hemolymph was improved by collecting the hemolymph into a variety of different media prior to hemolymph coagulation. Hemolymph samples collected into media containing the anticoagulant, citrate, had the highest amount of endogenous Dippu-AST 11-like peptide extracted as well as the highest percent recovery of spiked tracer.     

Helix pomatia lectin and annexin V,two molecular probes for insect microparticles: possible involvement in hemolymph coagulation

Insect hemolymph coagulation involves a complex reaction with contributions from hemocytes and soluble factors. Here we present evidence for the presence of microparticles in the coagulation reaction. These particles are formed by hemocytes in a calcium-dependent process. Both the particles and the remaining cells are labelled by annexin V indicating the presence of phosphatidylserine on the outer membrane. Microparticles are enriched in hemomucin, a surface protein of Drosophila hemocytes that is specifically recognised by a snail (Helix pomatia) lectin. Hemomucin is shown to bind to lipophorin, a multifunctional hemolymph molecule previously implied in coagulation. Our findings suggest similarities at a biochemical and cellular level between vertebrate blood and insect hemolymph coagulation.     

Insect hemocytes and their role in immunity

The innate immune system of insects is divided into humoral and cellular defense responses. Humoral defenses include antimicrobial peptides, the cascades that regulate coagulation and melanization of hemolymph, and the production of reactive intermediates of oxygen and nitrogen. Cellular defenses refer to hemocyte-mediated responses like phagocytosis and encapsulation. In this review, we discuss the cellular immune responses of insects with emphasis on studies in Lepidoptera and Diptera. Insect hemocytes originate from mesodermally derived stem cells that differentiate into specific lineages identified by morphology, function, and molecular markers. In Lepidoptera, most cellular defense responses involve granular cells and plasmatocytes, whereas in Drosophila they involve primarily plasmatocytes and lamellocytes. Insect hemocytes recognize a variety of foreign targets as well as alterations to self. Both humoral and cell surface receptors are involved in these recognition events. Once a target is recognized as foreign, hemocyte-mediated defense responses are regulated by signaling factors and effector molecules that control cell adhesion and cytotoxicity. Several lines of evidence indicate that humoral and cellular defense responses are well-coordinated with one another. Cross-talk between the immune and nervous system may also play a role in regulating inflammation-like responses in insects during infection.     

Alterations in hemolymph and extrapallial fluid parameters in the Manila clam, Ruditapes philippinarum, challenged with the pathogen Vibrio tapetis

In a recent study, we demonstrated the presence of defense factors, competent hemocytes and high enzymatic activities (peptidases, hydrolases, lytic, etc.), in the extrapallial fluid, located between the mantle and the shell, of the Manila clam, Ruditapes philippinarum. In Europe, this species is affected by brown ring disease, an epizootic disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio tapetis. The present work focused on the effect of the development of the disease on cellular and humoral defense parameters in the hemolymph and the extrapallial fluid of experimentally infected clams. Results indicate significant changes in total and dead hemocyte counts, as well as modifications in lysozyme activity and protein content, in the hemolymph and extrapallial fluid of challenged animals. Hemocyte counts and lysozyme activity increased significantly in the hemolymph, but particularly in the extrapallial fluid, where the highest values were observed. A healing (recalcification) process was observed 7 weeks following challenge, suggesting defense system efficiency at neutralizing the pathogen. These results are discussed with emphasis on the role of extrapallial fluids in the defense process against invading microorganisms.     

Insect hemolymph clotting: evidence for interaction between the coagulation system and the prophenoloxidase activating cascade

Here we describe a novel approach to isolate proteins involved in insect hemolymph coagulation. In order to avoid problems in purifying clot proteins after they had been crosslinked, we performed an in vitro coagulation reaction with cell-free hemolymph from the lepidopteran Galleria mellonella and used the resulting complexes to produce a specific antiserum. The antiserum reacted with a subset of hemolymph proteins as well as with granular cells, but not with other hemocyte types of Galleria. Screening expression libraries identified some positive clones, which turned out to code for some previously characterized components of immune cascades, as well as some novel candidates for clotting factors. Known components include members of both the coagulation system and the prophenol-activating cascade, lending support to the idea that both systems work together during the formation of a hemolymph clot. Novel candidates for insect clotting factors include a mucin-like protein, a glutathione-S-transferase, and a distant member of the alpha-crystallin/small heat shock protein family. Using assays measuring the activity of transglutaminase, a key enzyme in clotting reactions in both vertebrates and invertebrates, we found a partial overlap between transglutaminase substrates and proteins recognized by the antiserum against the in vitro-induced clot.     

Manduca sexta serpin-6 regulates immune serine proteinases PAP-3 and HP8. cDNA cloning, protein expression, inhibition kinetics, and function elucidation

Analogous to blood coagulation and complement activation in mammals, some insect defense responses (e.g. prophenoloxidase (proPO) activation and Toll pathway initiation) are mediated by serine proteinase cascades and regulated by serpins in hemolymph. We recently isolated Manduca sexta serpin-6 from hemolymph of the bacteria-challenged larvae, which selectively inhibited proPO-activating proteinase-3 (PAP-3) (Wang, Y., and Jiang, H. (2004) Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 34, 387-395). To further characterize its structure and function, we cloned serpin-6 from an induced fat body cDNA library using a PCR-derived probe. M. sexta serpin-6 is 55% similar in amino acid sequence to Drosophila melanogaster serpin-5, an immune-responsive protein. We produced serpin-6 in an Escherichia coli expression system and purified the soluble protein by nickel affinity and hydrophobic interaction chromatography. The recombinant protein specifically inhibited PAP-3 and blocked proPO activation in vitro in a concentration-dependent manner. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry indicated that the cleavage site of serpin-6 is between Arg373 and Ser374. Serpin-6 is constitutively present in hemolymph of naive larvae, and its mRNA and protein levels significantly increase after a bacterial injection. The association rate constant of serpin-6 and PAP-3 is 2.6 x 10(4) m(-1) s(-1), indicating that serpin-6 may contribute to the inhibitory regulation of PAP-3 in the hemolymph. We also identified the covalent complex of serpin-6 and PAP-3 in induced hemolymph by immunoaffinity chromatography and mass spectrometry. Furthermore, immulectin-2, serine proteinase homologs, proPO, PO, attacin-2, and a complex of serpin-6 and hemolymph proteinase-8 were also detected in the proteins eluted from the immunoaffinity column using serpin-6 antibody. These results suggest that serpin-6 plays important roles in the regulation of immune proteinases in the hemolymph.     

The Toll immune-regulated Drosophila protein Fondue is involved in hemolymph clotting and puparium formation

Clotting is critical in limiting hemolymph loss and initiating wound healing in insects as in vertebrates. It is also an important immune defense, quickly forming a secondary barrier to infection, immobilizing bacteria and thereby promoting their killing. However, hemolymph clotting is one of the least understood immune responses in insects. Here, we characterize fondue (fon; CG15825), an immune-responsive gene of Drosophila melanogaster that encodes an abundant hemolymph protein containing multiple repeat blocks. After knockdown of fon by RNAi, bead aggregation activity of larval hemolymph is strongly reduced, and wound closure is affected. fon is thus the second Drosophila gene after hemolectin (hml), for which a knockdown causes a clotting phenotype. In contrast to hml-RNAi larvae, clot fibers are still observed in samples from fon-RNAi larvae. However, clot fibers from fon-RNAi larvae are more ductile and longer than in wt hemolymph samples, indicating that Fondue might be involved in cross-linking of fiber proteins. In addition, fon-RNAi larvae exhibit melanotic tumors and constitutive expression of the antifungal peptide gene Drosomycin (Drs), while fon-RNAi pupae display an aberrant pupal phenotype. Altogether, our studies indicate that Fondue is a major hemolymph protein required for efficient clotting in Drosophila.     

The granular cells of Galleria mellonella during clotting and phagocytic reactions in vitro

Light and electron-microscopic observations of the blood-cells (hemocytes) of the wax-moth Galleria mellonella showed that hemolymph coagulation was initiated by the rapid release of material from the granular cells. During incubation for short terms in vitro these cells showed progressive degranulation as material derived from the granules was discharged into the hemolymph. Attempts to determine the nature of this material by staining with ruthenium red proved mainly unsuccessful. When challenged with bacteria in vitro the granular cells failed to phagocytose these particles and instead the bacteria became embedded in the granular material surrounding these cells. The mode of coagulation reported here is compared with previous reports of the role of invertebrate hemocytes in hemolymph clotting.     

Proteomic analysis of the Drosophila larval hemolymph clot

Components of the insect clot, an extremely rapid forming and critical part of insect immunity, are just beginning to be identified (1). Here we present a proteomic comparison of larval hemolymph before and after clotting to learn more about this process. This approach was supplemented by the identification of substrates for the enzyme transglutaminase, which plays a role in both vertebrate blood clotting (as factor XIIIa) and hemolymph coagulation in arthropods. Hemolymph proteins present in lower amounts after clotting include CG8502 (a protein with a mucin-type domain and a domain with similarity to cuticular components), CG11313 (a protein with similarity to prophenoloxidase-activating proteases), and two phenoloxidases, lipophorin, a secreted gelsolin, and CG15825, which had previously been isolated from clots (2). Proteins whose levels increase after clotting include a ferritin-subunit and two members of the immunoglobulin family with a high similarity to the small immunoglobulin-like molecules involved in mammalian innate immunity. Our results correlate with findings from another study of coagulation (2) that involved a different experimental approach. Proteomics allows the isolation of novel candidate clotting factors, leading to a more complete picture of clotting. In addition, our two-dimensional protein map of cell-free Drosophila hemolymph includes many additional proteins that were not found in studies performed on whole hemolymph.