小鼠胚胎干细胞向脂肪细胞分化过程中PPARγ2基因的表达模式

将PPARγ2基因启动子和报告基因荧光素酶相连接克隆于特定载体构建成表达质粒 ,电穿孔转染小鼠ES细胞 ,筛选阳性克隆。诱导ES细胞向脂肪细胞分化 ,通过定量检测荧光素酶活性跟踪PPARγ2基因的表达情况 ,以此研究脂肪细胞分化过程中该基因的表达模式。结果显示PPARγ2基因在未分化的ES细胞和EB形成的前两天中不表达 ,从EB形成的第 3天开始表达 ,直至脂肪细胞分化完成。该基因在已完成分化的脂肪细胞中的表达远强于在分化中的前脂肪细胞中的表达。首次报道了从小鼠ES细胞到脂肪细胞分化过程中PPARγ2基因的表达模式 ,支持了PPARγ2基因为脂肪组织特异性表达基因的已有报道 ,并为脂肪细胞分化机理研究提供了线索。     

小鼠3T3-L1前脂肪细胞系的增强绿色荧光蛋白标记

细胞模型是研究细胞分化原理以及进行高通量筛选的有效工具。为了建立特异性标记的脂肪细胞分化模型,构建了包括脂肪细胞分化特异性表达基因PPARγ2的启动子在内的载体（pPPARγ2-promoter-EGFP）,用电穿孔方法转染小鼠3T3L1 前脂肪细胞,用显微荧光观察和RT-PCR确认PPARγ2基因的内源表达。结果显示,EGFP基因成功转入3T3-L1前脂肪细胞,观察到细胞分化过程中EGFP表达和脂肪积累,RTPCR分析表明EGFP代表了稳定而真实的PPARγ2基因的内源性表达。建立了由脂肪组织特异表达基因PPARγ2的表达控制的EGFP标记的小鼠3T3-L1前脂肪细胞系,目前国内外尚未见用同样方法对前脂肪细胞进行特异性标记。该细胞系将为脂肪细胞分化机理研究以及为抗肥胖症和抗糖尿病药物筛选提供有力工具。     

KLF转录因子家族与脂肪细胞分化

Kruppel样转录因子（Kruppel-like factors, KLF）是一类具有锌指结构的转录因子,其典型结构特征是在其羧基端具有3个C2H2锌指结构. KLF广泛参与细胞增殖、凋亡、分化以及胚胎发育等多个生命活动的调控. 近年来脂肪细胞分化研究的结果显示,KLF家族的多个成员参与脂肪细胞分化过程的调控,既有促进脂肪细胞分化的,也有抑制脂肪细胞分化的. 其中KLF4通过与Krox20协同作用,激活C/EBPβ（CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein β）基因表达,促进脂肪细胞分化;KLF5和 KLF15都通过直接结合到氧化物酶增殖体激活受体γ（peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, PPARγ）基因的启动子,激活PPARγ基因表达,促进脂肪细胞分化;而KLF6则通过抑制前脂肪细胞因子（pre-adipocyte factor 1, PREF1）基因表达,促进脂肪细胞分化. 抑制脂肪细胞分化的KLF2通过结合于PPARγ的启动子,抑制PPARγ基因表达,从而抑制脂肪细胞的分化;KLF3通过募集辅助抑制因子C-末端结合蛋白（c-terminal binding protein, CtBP）形成KLF3 CtBP抑制复合体,结合于C/EBPα（CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein α）基因的启动子,抑制C/EBPα表达,进而抑制脂肪细胞的分化;KLF7通过抑制葡萄糖转运蛋白2（glucose transporter2,GLUT2）基因的表达抑制脂肪细胞的成熟. 本文综述这些KLF转录因子在脂肪细胞分化过程的作用及其作用的机制.     

鸡PPARγ基因的表达特性及其对脂肪细胞增殖分化的影响

为分析鸡PPARγ基因的组织表达特性及其在脂肪细胞增殖和分化过程中的功能,文章以东北农业大学高、低腹脂双向选择品系肉鸡为实验材料,利用Western blotting方法,检测PPARγ基因的组织表达特性及其在高、低脂系肉鸡腹部脂肪组织间的表达差异;采用RNAi技术,在鸡原代脂肪细胞中抑制PPARγ基因的表达后,通过MTT和油红O提取比色的方法,研究鸡PPARγ基因对脂肪细胞增殖和分化的调控作用;利用Real-timePCR和Western blotting技术,分析PPARγ基因表达下调后,其他脂肪细胞分化转录因子以及与脂肪细胞分化相关的重要基因的表达变化情况。结果表明,PPARγ基因在7周龄高脂系肉鸡腹部脂肪组织、肌胃、脾脏、肾脏组织中表达量较高,在心脏中表达量较低,在肝脏、胸肌、腿肌、十二指肠中未检测到表达信号;与高脂系相比,PPARγ基因在5和7周龄低脂系肉鸡腹部脂肪组织中的表达量较低(P<0.05);PPARγ基因的表达量下降后,鸡脂肪细胞的增殖能力增强,分化能力减弱;同时,C/EBPα、SREBP1、A-FABP、Perilipin1、LPL、IGFBP-2基因的表达量均下降(P<0.05)。由此可见,PPARγ基因的表达可能与肉鸡腹部脂肪的沉积有一定的关系,该基因可能是调控鸡脂肪细胞增殖与分化的关键因子。     

过表达miR-103促进猪前体脂肪细胞分化

为阐明miR-103在猪前体脂肪细胞分化过程中的调控作用,采用Real-time PCR检测猪前体脂肪细胞成脂分化过程中的miR-103表达谱,明确了其在分化过程中的表达趋势;使用miR-103的腺病毒超表达载体感染猪原代脂肪细胞,随后采用Real-time PCR和Western blotting分别检测成脂标记基因PPARγ、aP2的mRNA和蛋白表达量变化;油红O染色观察腺病毒miR-103侵染的前体脂肪细胞诱导分化第8天的成脂情况。结果显示,miR-103的表达量随着脂肪细胞分化而增加,在miR-103超表达的猪原代脂肪细胞的诱导分化过程中,成脂标记基因PPARγ、aP2的表达量与对照相比显著升高,分化第8天观察到明显的脂滴。说明miR-103能够促进猪前体脂肪细胞分化。     

3T3-L1前体脂肪细胞分化过程中G蛋白偶联受体48的表达研究

目的 观察G蛋白偶联受体48（GPR48）、过氧化物酶体增殖体激活受体g2（PPARγ2）和CCAAT增强子结合蛋白α（C/EBPα）基因在小鼠胚胎成纤维细胞（3T3-L1）前体脂肪细胞诱导分化过程中不同时段表达水平的变化,探讨GPR48在脂肪细胞分化过程的作用。方法 体外培养3T3-L1前体脂肪细胞诱导分化为成熟脂肪细胞,在分化不同时段（第0~14天）,采用Real-timePCR技术检测脂肪细胞中GPR48、PPARγ2和C/EBPα基因信使核糖核酸（mRNA）的表达水平。结果 GPR48基因在3T3-L1前体脂肪细胞诱导分化第2天和第3天表达显著上调,差异均有统计学意义（t=4.12,P=0.015;t=6.21,P=0.003）,分化第6~14天与分化前表达无差异。PPARγ2表达在诱导分化后明显上调,分化第6天达高峰,第10~14天持续处于较高水平并趋于稳定,与诱导前期相比各时段间表达水平差异均有统计学意义（t在4.17~22.65间,P均〈0.01）。C/EBPα表达在诱导分化后明显上调,分化后第3天达高峰,第6~10天持续保持在较高水平,与诱导前期相比各时段表达水平差异均有统计学意义（t在4.38~13.87间,P均〈0.01）,第14天趋于下调,与分化前比较无差异。GPR48基因表达高峰早于PPARγ2和C/EBPα。结论 在3T3-L1脂肪细胞分化过程中PPARγ2和C/EBPα表达变化与脂肪细胞分化、脂质积聚过程相一致。GPR48基因表达高峰早于PPARγ2和C/EBPα,可能参与了脂肪细胞分化的早期过程。     

维生素C通过调控脂肪形成相关基因的转录促进猪前体脂肪细胞的增殖与分化

探讨维生素C（Vit C）诱导猪前体脂肪细胞增殖分化最佳浓度及在分化过程中,5种脂肪形成相关基因peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma(PPARγ)和retinoid X receptor alpha(RXRα),脂肪细胞分化标志基因lipoprotein lipase (LPL),生脂基因phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase(PEPCK)、stearoyl CoA desaturase(SCD) mRNA表达时序性的变化. 以3　d龄猪前体脂肪细胞为实验对象,用Vit C诱导猪前体脂肪细胞增殖分化,分别在增殖分化第2、4、6和8 d收获细胞,利用MTT测定其增殖程度;油红O染色提取法检测其脂肪含量;采用SQ RT PCR法检测脂肪生成相关基因PPARγ、RXRα、LPL、PEPCK和SCD mRNA表达的变化. 结果显示,PPARγ mRNA在诱导分化第2 d时有低水平表达,在诱导分化过程中表达量逐步升高,在终末分化阶段仍保持高水平表达;RXRα mRNA在诱导分化第2和4 d表达量很低,诱导分化第6 d时表达增加.在诱导分化第8 d,RXRα mRNA表达与第6 d相比差异不显著,直至终末分化. 脂肪细胞分化标志基因LPL在第2 d开始表达,第4和6 d逐步升高,在终末分化阶段仍保持高水平的表达;生脂基因PEPCK和SCD mRNA在第2和4 d开始表达,第6和8 d仍保持高水平的表达. 研究结果表明,100 μmol/L的Vit C促进猪前体脂肪细胞增殖能力最强;250 μmol/L Vit C能显著促进猪前体脂肪细胞分化. 其作用机制可能是通过对转录因子PPARγ和RXRα及标志基因LPL mRNA时序性表达的调控来进行的,促进生脂基因的表达,从而诱导脂肪细胞的分化.     

维生素A酸受体γ基因表达及其对ES细胞分化和凋亡的影响

本文以小鼠胚胎干细胞ES-5细胞为实验模型,研究了RARγ基因表达对RA诱导ES细胞分化的影响。通过把构建质粒pSG5-RARγ-neo转染ES-5细胞,获得了过度表达RARγ基因的ES-γ细胞系。ES-γ细胞保持了ES细胞的干细胞特点。体内分化潜能的研究表明,ES-γ细胞仍然保持分化多潜能性的特点,能分化形成各种组织结构,但与ES-5细胞相比,观察不到软骨组织,而肌肉组织和鳞状上皮细胞构成的角质化囊状结构较丰富。体外诱导分化研究表明,ES-γ细胞分化方向受到干扰,向成纤维样细胞分化。这些结果表明RARγ基因参与了RA诱导ES细胞分化的过程,而且RARγ基因的表达变化影响了RA诱导ES细胞分化的细胞类型。在研究中还发现,ES细胞在RA诱导分化过程中,同时还发生了细胞凋亡现象。细胞凋亡的发生与RA浓度相关,而RARγ基因的过度表达使细胞凋亡明显加剧。这些结果表明RARγ基因可能也参与了RA诱导ES细胞凋亡的过程。     

黄芩素对猪前体脂肪细胞增殖分化的影响

研究黄芩素(BAI)对猪前体脂肪细胞增殖分化的影响,并探讨其可能的作用机制。原代培养猪前体脂肪细胞,采用油红O染色观察细胞分化的形态学变化;MTT检测细胞增殖状况;油红O染色提取定量分析细胞内脂肪生成及细胞分化程度;分光光度法测定脂肪酸合酶(FAS)的活性;逆转录-聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)检测分化特异基因过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ2(PPARγ2)mRNA表达变化。结果显示,前体脂肪细胞在分化成脂肪细胞的过程中,其形态由梭形变成椭圆形、圆形,细胞内充满大小不一的脂滴;BAI浓度在160～640μmol/L时显著抑制其增殖(P<0.05)、BAI浓度为40～320μmol/L时显著抑制PPARγ2mRNA表达和FAS的活性,并抑制细胞分化(P<0.05)。以上结果说明,BAI对前体脂肪细胞增殖分化均有一定抑制作用,BAI可能通过抑制PPARγ2mRNA表达和降低FAS活性,从而抑制猪前体脂肪细胞分化。     

过表达Sirt2抑制猪前体脂肪细胞的分化

本文旨在利用过表达技术研究Sirt2在猪前体脂肪细胞分化中的作用.首先将Sirt2插入腺病毒穿梭载体pAdTrack-CMV,并与骨架载体pAdEasy-1在大肠杆菌BJ5183中同源重组,重组体用Lipofectamine2000包装转染HEK293细胞系,成功获得重组腺病毒vAd-Sirt2.用vAd-Sirt2感染猪前体脂肪细胞,48h后油红O染色法观察脂肪细胞分化情况,RT-PCR检测脂肪细胞分化标志基因PPARγ和aP2的表达.结果显示,过表达Sirt2促使细胞中脂滴减少,同时标志基因PPARγ、aP2mRNA水平显著降低,说明Sirt2抑制猪前体脂肪细胞分化,这为控制猪体脂沉积提供依据以及为人类肥胖和相关疾病的治疗和预防奠定基础.     

Induction of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma during the conversion of 3T3 fibroblasts into adipocytes is mediated by C/EBPbeta, C/EBPdelta, and glucocorticoids.

The differentiation of 3T3 preadipocytes into adipocytes is accompanied by a transient induction of C/EBPbeta and C/EBPdelta expression in response to treatment of the cells with methylisobutylxanthine (MIX) and dexamethasone (DEX), respectively. In this report, we demonstrate that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) expression in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes is induced by MIX and DEX, suggesting that C/EBPbeta and C/EBPdelta may be involved in this process. Using a tetracycline-responsive expression system, we have recently shown that the conditional ectopic expression of C/EBPbeta in NIH 3T3 fibroblasts (beta2 cells) in the presence of DEX activates the synthesis of peroxisome PPARgamma mRNA. Subsequent exposure of these cells to PPAR activators stimulates their conversion into adipocytes; however, neither the expression of C/EBPbeta nor exposure to DEX alone is capable of inducing PPARgamma expression in the beta2 cell line. We find that unlike the case for 3T3 preadipocytes, C/EBPdelta is not induced by DEX in these 3T3 fibroblasts and therefore is not relaying the effect of this glucocorticoid to the PPARgamma gene. To define the role of glucocorticoids in regulating PPARgamma expression and the possible involvement of C/EBPdelta, we have established an additional set of NIH 3T3 cell lines expressing either C/EBPdelta alone (delta23 cells) or C/EBPdelta and C/EBPbeta together (beta/delta39 cells), using the tetracycline-responsive system. Culture of these cells in tetracycline-deficient medium containing DEX, MIX, insulin, and fetal bovine serum shows that the beta/delta39 cells express PPARgamma and aP2 mRNAs at levels that are almost equivalent to those observed in fully differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. These levels are approximately threefold higher than their levels of expression in the beta2 cells. Despite the fact that these beta/delta39 cells produce abundant amounts of C/EBPbeta and C/EBPdelta (in the absence of tetracycline), they still require glucocorticoids to attain maximum expression of PPARgamma mRNA. Furthermore, the induction of PPARgamma mRNA by exposure of these cells to DEX occurs in the absence of ongoing protein synthesis. The delta23 cells, on the other hand, are not capable of activating PPARgamma gene expression when exposed to the same adipogenic inducers. Finally, attenuation of ectopic C/EBPbeta production at various stages during the differentiation process results in a concomitant inhibition of PPARgamma and the adipogenic program. These data strongly suggest that the induction of PPARgamma gene expression in multipotential mesenchymal stem cells (NIH 3T3 fibroblasts) is dependent on elevated levels of C/EBPbeta throughout the differentiation process, as well as an initial exposure to glucocorticoids. C/EBPdelta may function by synergizing with C/EBPbeta to enhance the level of PPARgamma expression.     

Regulating the balance between peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and beta-catenin signaling during adipogenesis. A glycogen synthase kinase 3beta phosphorylation-defective mutant of beta-catenin inhibits expression of a subset of adipogenic genes

The differentiation of preadipocytes into adipocytes requires the suppression of canonical Wnt signaling, which appears to involve a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma)-associated targeting of beta-catenin to the proteasome. In fact, sustained activation of beta-catenin by expression of Wnt1 or Wnt 10b in preadipocytes blocks adipogenesis by inhibiting PPARgamma-associated gene expression. In this report, we investigated the mechanisms regulating the balance between beta-catenin and PPARgamma signaling that determines whether mouse fibroblasts differentiate into adipocytes. Specifically, we show that activation of PPARgamma by exposure of Swiss mouse fibroblasts to troglitazone stimulates the degradation of beta-catenin, which depends on glycogen synthase kinase (GSK) 3beta activity. Mutation of serine 37 (a target of GSK3beta) to an alanine renders beta-catenin resistant to the degradatory action of PPARgamma. Ectopic expression of the GSK3beta phosphorylation-defective S37A-beta-catenin in Swiss mouse fibroblasts expressing PPARgamma stimulates the canonical Wnt signaling pathway without blocking their troglitazone-dependent differentiation into lipid-laden cells. Analysis of protein expression in these cells, however, shows that S37A-beta-catenin inhibits a select set of adipogenic genes because adiponectin expression is completely blocked, but FABP4/aP2 expression is unaffected. Furthermore, the mutant beta-catenin appears to have no affect on the ability of PPARgamma to bind to or transactivate a PPAR response element. The S37A-beta-catenin-associated inhibition of adiponectin expression coincides with an extensive decrease in the abundance of C/EBPalpha in the nuclei of the differentiated mouse fibroblasts. Taken together, these data suggest that GSKbeta is a key regulator of the balance between beta-catenin and PPARgamma activity and that activation of canonical Wnt signaling downstream of PPARgamma blocks expression of a select subset of adipogenic genes.     

Phosphorylation of C/EBPbeta at a consensus extracellular signal-regulated kinase/glycogen synthase kinase 3 site is required for the induction of adiponectin gene expression during the differentiation of mouse fibroblasts into adipocytes

Stimulation of adipogenesis in mouse preadipocytes requires C/EBPbeta as well as activation of the MEK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway. In this study, we demonstrate that phosphorylation of C/EBPbeta at a consensus ERK/glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) site regulates adiponectin gene expression during the C/EBPbeta-facilitated differentiation of mouse fibroblasts into adipocytes. First, we show that exposure of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes to insulin, dexamethasone (DEX), and isobutylmethylxanthine (MIX) leads to the phosphorylation of C/EBPbeta at threonine 188. Pretreating the cells with a MEK1-specific inhibitor (U0126) significantly attenuates this activity. Similarly, these effectors activate the phosphorylation of T188 within an ectopic C/EBPbeta overexpressed in Swiss mouse fibroblasts, and this event involves both MEK1 and GSK3 activity. We further show that expression of C/EBPbeta (p34kD LAP isoform) in Swiss mouse fibroblasts exposed to DEX, MIX, and insulin induces expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) and some adiponectin but that it does not activate expression of FABP4/aP2. In fact, complete conversion of these fibroblasts into lipid-laden adipocytes, which includes activation of FABP4 and adiponectin expression, requires their exposure to a potent PPARgamma ligand such as troglitazone. Expression of a mutant C/EBPbeta in which threonine 188 has been modified to alanine (C/EBPbeta T188A) can induce PPARgamma production in the mouse fibroblasts, but it is incapable of stimulating adiponectin expression in the absence or presence of troglitazone. Interestingly, replacement of T188 with aspartic acid creates a C/EBPbeta molecule (C/EBPbeta T188D) that possesses adipogenic activity similar to that of the wild-type molecule. The absence of adiponectin expression correlates with a reduced amount of C/EBPalpha in the adipocytes expressing the T188A mutant suggesting that C/EBPalpha is required for expression of adiponectin. In fact, ectopic expression of PPARgamma in C/EBPalpha-deficient fibroblasts (NIH 3T3 cells) produces a modest amount of adiponectin, whereas expression of both PPARgamma and C/EBPalpha in NIH 3T3 cells facilitates production of abundant quantities of adiponectin. These data demonstrate that phosphorylation of C/EBPbeta at a consensus ERK/GSK3 site is required for both C/EBPalpha and adiponectin gene expression during the differentiation of mouse fibroblasts into adipocytes.     

Role of Wnt10b and C/EBPalpha in spontaneous adipogenesis of 243 cells

This report examines the balance of positive and negative adipogenic factors in a line of immortalized 243 embryonic fibroblasts that undergo spontaneous preadipocyte differentiation. Control of adipogenesis reflects the interplay of factors that promote or inhibit expression of C/EBPalpha and PPARgamma. The 243 cells express C/EBPalpha early and at elevated levels compared to 3T3-F442A preadipocytes or adipocytes. Cell clones were derived from the heterogeneous 243 population for ability or inability to differentiate into adipocytes. Wnt10b, a secreted protein that inhibits adipogenesis, is expressed at high levels in cells with low adipogenic potential and is undetectable in preadipocytes that spontaneously differentiate. In contrast, C/EBPalpha is expressed at reduced levels in cells with low adipogenic potential, and is expressed at high levels in preadipocytes that spontaneously differentiate. These data are consistent with a model in which decreased Wnt10b, coupled with increased C/EBPalpha, results in induction of PPARgamma and spontaneous adipogenesis of 243 cells.     

Monkey embryonic stem cells differentiate into adipocytes in vitro

Production of functional adipocytes is important in adipocyte research and regenerative medicine. In this paper, we describe the differentiation of monkey embryonic stem (ES) cells into insulin-responsive adipocytes. Treatment of embryoid body (EB) outgrowth with adipogenic hormones induced the expression of adipocyte-specific genes, such as PPARgamma, C/EBPalpha, aP2, insulin receptor, and GLUT4. Expression of adipocytokines, leptin and adiponectin, was also detected. Furthermore, translocation of GLUT4 was observed by insulin stimulation in differentiated adipocytes. These results suggested that monkey ES cells can be a useful tool for studying adipogenesis in primate.