溶酶体离子通道蛋白在神经退行性疾病发生发展中的作用及机制研究

溶酶体离子通道蛋白异常引起溶酶体功能障碍是导致阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)和帕金森病(Parkinson’s disease,PD)等神经退行性疾病的重要因素.溶酶体离子通道蛋白调节溶酶体内离子稳态、溶酶体膜电压以及溶酶体的酸度.溶酶体离子通道蛋白的结构或功能缺陷会引起溶酶体降解功能障碍,导致神经退行性疾病的发生发展.在这篇综述中,我们总结了各种离子通道蛋白调节溶酶体功能的过程及机制,以及离子通道蛋白异常参与神经退行性疾病的过程和机制.调节离子通道蛋白改善溶酶体的功能、促进异常聚集蛋白的清除,是神经退行性疾病治疗的潜在途径.     

溶酶体与细胞凋亡

在特定条件下,包括活性氧、鞘氨醇、细胞凋亡效应因子Bax等在内的多种刺激因子均可诱发溶酶体膜通透,之后溶酶体内含的蛋白酶（如组织蛋白酶等）及其他水解酶从溶酶体释放至胞浆中,通过剪切效应分子、激活包括凋亡酶在内的其他水解酶而启动细胞凋亡程序的执行。简要概括了引发溶酶体膜通透的可能机制及溶酶体参与细胞凋亡的主要途径。     

正常大鼠肾脏细胞溶酶体膜的构成蛋白

溶酶体是细胞内对其吞噬之物质溶解及消化之主要场所,同时也是细胞自噬作用的主要细胞器。为了进一步了解此细胞器的功能与结构,我们采用免疫荧光标记法,通过5种针对大鼠肝细胞溶酶体膜蛋白的特异性单克隆抗体,对大鼠正常肾脏细胞溶酶体膜蛋白进行了标记,并通过NH_4Cl溶液对溶酶体作了膜膨胀处理,结果显示:(1)细胞内溶酶体膜蛋白是由多种蛋白所构成,其各种蛋白的含量是不同的;(2)所有溶酶体膜蛋白均表达于该细胞器之表面;(3)NH_4Cl溶液能有效地使溶酶体扩张,这将有和于进一步研究溶酶体的结构。     

溶酶体膜H^＋—ATP酶的细胞化学观察

本实验在以p-NPP为底物、氯化铈为捕捉剂、Tricine-KOH为缓冲液的中性最适环境中温育大鼠肝组织,进行肝细胞、血窦内皮细胞和枯否氏细胞内溶酶体膜上H~+-ATP酶定位的细胞化学研究。温育反应形成的磷酸铈反应产物电子密度高、颗粒细、分布均匀、非特异性反应产物少、重复性好。对照实验证实,溶酶体膜上的H~+-ATP酶是对哇巴因耐受的,对NEM敏感的囊泡膜H~+-ATP酶。     

细胞死亡的新理论：溶酶体线粒体轴理论

线粒体在细胞死亡中占有中心地位,但其他细胞器影响线粒体启动细胞死亡的机制仍不十分明确. 近几年来,随着对溶酶体功能的不断了解,Alexei等提出了溶酶体线粒体轴理论.这一理论阐述了溶酶体与线粒体的相互作用,并最终导致细胞死亡的机理. 各种致凋亡因素作用于溶酶体,导致溶酶体膜通透性改变．溶酶体膜通透性改变能通过铁依赖的方式、脂褐素相关的方式、Bcl-2家族依赖的方式和Rho/ROCK途径-JNK信号通路的方式影响线粒体,造成线粒体膜通透性改变,进而启动细胞死亡．而线粒体膜通透性改变能通过ROS依赖的方式和Bcl-2家族依赖的方式引起溶酶体通透性改变,最终导致细胞死亡. 溶酶体线粒体轴理论还能用于解释非酒精性脂肪肝和溶酶体贮积症的发病机制．本文将对溶酶体线粒体轴理论及其与疾病的关系两方面进行阐述．     

氧化应激对溶酶体储存与转运甲醛的影响

内源甲醛代谢失调被认为是导致阿尔茨海默病的危险因素之一,甲醛蓄积会引起神经细胞的死亡和认知功能的降低.研究表明,细胞内甲醛分布于溶酶体内,而溶酶体功能异常与神经退行性疾病密切相关.本文采用甲醛特异荧光探针,在氧化应激条件下,检测到小鼠脑微血管内皮细胞株bEnd.3和小鼠神经瘤母细胞株N2a溶酶体内甲醛明显升高;在慢性脑低灌注大鼠动物模型中,其脑神经细胞的溶酶体内甲醛也升高(P0.01);LeuLeuOMe处理bEnd.3细胞,使其溶酶体膜通透性增加,导致细胞内甲醛蓄积,而胞外甲醛降低.以上结果证明,溶酶体具有储存和转运甲醛的功能,如果溶酶体出现结构与功能的异常,会导致甲醛代谢失调,造成认知损害.     

动物生物标志物在土壤污染生态学研究中的应用

应用陆栖无脊椎动物的生物标志物对土壤生态系统中污染物的暴露和效应进行评价日益受到重视,并取得了显著的研究进展,文中介绍了溶酶体、胁迫蛋白和金属硫蛋白(MTs)3种主要生物标志物,体腔细胞内溶酶体膜稳定性用中性红保持时间(NRR)进行检测;胁迫蛋白类多采其中的Hsp70和Hsp60;金属硫蛋白不同同分异构体的定量分析可用于反映不同的金属污染胁迫,对3种生物标志物机理、特性、检测实例以及在污染土壤生态毒理诊断中的应用前景进行了评述。     

自噬对胞内感染病原体的双重作用

自噬(autophagy)是细胞维持稳态的一种机制[1,2].在自噬发生过程中,来源不明的单层膜凹陷形成杯状双层膜的结构,包裹细胞质和细胞器部分,形成有双层膜的自噬体(autophagosome).自噬体随之与溶酶体融合形成自噬溶酶体,其中的细胞物质被溶酶体酶降解,降解后产生的氨基酸可以被细胞重新利用,参与物质的再循环.     

溶酶体损伤与细胞死亡:疾病治疗新靶点

溶酶体(lysosome)是真核细胞中重要的细胞器,其结构的完整性及功能平衡与细胞生存及功能密切相关。溶酶体损伤(lysosome damage)可触发细胞不同的死亡方式,参与多种疾病的发生发展过程,如感染、炎症性疾病和肿瘤等。溶酶体损伤应答(endo-lysosomal damage response,ELDR)是细胞对溶酶体损伤作出的一系列特异性反应,包括溶酶体修复、溶酶体自噬和溶酶体再生,能通过溶酶体进行质量控制进而维持细胞稳态,是改善患者生存及预后的潜在治疗靶点。     

大鼠分泌期成釉细胞线状溶酶体的研究

目的：研究分泌期成徽细胞中,线状溶酶体的分布,探讨其在牙釉质形成中的作用。方法：运用酶组织细胞化学光、电镜技术进行制定和观察,并利用图像分析软件进行定量分析。结果：在分泌期成釉细胞中有线状溶酶体(Nly)的分布。且分布的密度随日龄而不同。结论：分泌期成釉细胞中的线性溶酶与牙釉质的形成和矿化过程相关。     

Density gradient separation of two populations of lysosomes from rat parotid acinar cells

Exocrine acinar cells possess two cytochemically distinct populations of secondary lysosomes. One population is Golgi associated and has demonstrable acid phosphatase (AcPase) activity, whereas the second is basally located and lacks AcPase activity but has trimetaphosphatase (TMPase) activity. The basal lysosomes are tubular in shape and rapidly label with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) after intravenous injection. In the present study using isolated rat parotid acinar cells, the two lysosomal populations were separated by cell fractionation on Percoll density gradients and were analyzed biochemically and by EM cytochemistry. On 35% Percoll gradients, two peaks of AcPase and beta-hexosaminidase, both lysosomal marker enzymes, and succinic dehydrogenase, an enzyme marker for mitochondria, could be resolved. The major peaks of beta-hexosaminidase and succinic dehydrogenase and the minor peak of AcPase corresponded with the dense lysosome fraction. The major peak of AcPase and the minor peaks for beta-hexosaminidase and succinic dehydrogenase coincided with the light membrane fraction. Galactosyl transferase (a marker enzyme for Golgi saccules) and 5'-nucleotidase (a plasma membrane marker) were also associated with this fraction. By electron microscopy, the light membrane fraction was seen to contain tubular elements, multivesicular bodies (MVB), Golgi saccules, GERL, immature secretory granules, and some mitochondria. Electron microscopic cytochemical examination showed that these tubular structures were lysosomes. The dense lysosome fraction contained lysosomes positive for both AcPase and TMPase. After continuous incubation of isolated acinar cells with HRP, reaction product was rapidly localized to the light membrane fraction (greater than 2 min), where it was found in vesicles and tubular lysosomes. By 10 min it was present in MVB and tubular lysosomes, but by 60 min no HRP reaction product had appeared in the dense lysosomes. These results demonstrate that the tubular lysosomes are separable from dense lysosomes, typical secondary lysosomes, and are involved in the initial stages of endocytosis.     

A non-autophagic pathway for diversion of ER secretory proteins to lysosomes

Intracisternal granules (ICG) develop in the rough ER of hyperstimulated thyrotrophs or thyroid hormone-secreting cells of the anterior pituitary gland. To determine the fate of these granules, we carried out morphological and immunocytochemical studies on pituitaries of thyroxine-treated, thyroidectomized rats. Under these conditions the ER of thyrotrophs is dramatically dilated and contains abundant ICG; the latter contain beta subunits of thyrotrophic hormone (TSH-beta). Based on purely morphologic criteria, intermediates were identified that appeared to represent stages in the transformation of a part rough/part smooth ER cisterna into a lysosome. Using immunocytochemical and cytochemical markers, two major types of intermediates were distinguished: type 1 lacked ribosomes but were labeled with antibodies against both ER markers (PDI, KDEL, ER membrane proteins) and a lysosomal membrane marker, lgp120. They also were reactive for the lysosomal enzyme, acid phosphatase, by enzyme cytochemistry. Type 2 intermediates were weakly reactive for ER markers and contained both lgp120 and lysosomal enzymes (cathepsin D, acid phosphatase). Taken together these results suggest that in hyperstimulated thyrotrophs part rough/part smooth ER elements containing ICG lose their ribosomes, their membrane is modified, and they sequentially acquire a lysosome-type membrane and lysosomal enzymes. The findings are compatible with the conclusion that a pathway exists by which under certain conditions, secretory proteins present in the ER as well as ER membrane and content proteins can be degraded by direct conversion of ER cisternae into lysosomes.     

Lysosomal membrane cholesterol dynamics

Although the majority of exogenous cholesterol and cholesterol ester enters the cell by LDL-receptor-mediated endocytosis and the lysosomal pathway, the assumption that cholesterol transfers out of the lysosome by rapid (minutes), spontaneous diffusion has heretofore not been tested. As shown herein, lysosomal membranes were unique among known organellar membranes in terms of cholesterol content, cholesterol dynamics, and response to cholesterol-mobilizing proteins. First, the lysosomal membrane cholesterol:phospholipid molar ratio, 0.38, was intermediate between those of the plasma membrane and other organellar membranes. Second, a fluorescence sterol exchange assay showed that the initial rate of spontaneous sterol transfer out of lysosomes and purified lysosomal membranes was extremely slow, t(1/2) >4 days. This was >100-fold longer than that reported in intact cells (2 min) and 40-60-fold longer than from any other known intracellular membrane. Third, when probed with several cholesterol-binding proteins, the initial rate of sterol transfer was maximally increased nearly 80-fold and the organization of cholesterol in the lysosomal membrane was rapidly altered. Nearly half of the essentially nonexchangeable sterol in the lysosomal membrane was converted to rapidly (t(1/2) = 6 min; fraction = 0.06) and slowly (t(1/2) = 154 min; fraction = 0.36) exchangeable sterol domains/pools. In summary, the data revealed that spontaneous cholesterol transfer out of the lysosome and lysosomal membrane was extremely slow, inconsistent with rapid spontaneous diffusion across the lysosomal membrane. In contrast, the very slow spontaneous transfer of sterol out of the lysosome and lysosomal membrane was consistent with cholesterol leaving the lysosome earlier in the endocytic process and/or with cholesterol transfer out of the lysosome being mediated by additional process(es) extrinsic to the lysosome and lysosomal membrane.     

A conserved ubiquitin- and ESCRT-dependent pathway internalizes human lysosomal membrane proteins for degradation

The lysosome is an essential organelle to recycle cellular materials and maintain nutrient homeostasis, but the mechanism to down-regulate its membrane proteins is poorly understood. In this study, we performed a cycloheximide (CHX) chase assay to measure the half-lives of approximately 30 human lysosomal membrane proteins (LMPs) and identified RNF152 and LAPTM4A as short-lived membrane proteins. The degradation of both proteins is ubiquitin dependent. RNF152 is a transmembrane E3 ligase that ubiquitinates itself, whereas LAPTM4A uses its carboxyl-terminal PY motifs to recruit NEDD4-1 for ubiquitination. After ubiquitination, they are internalized into the lysosome lumen by the endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) machinery for degradation. Strikingly, when ectopically expressed in budding yeast, human RNF152 is still degraded by the vacuole (yeast lysosome) in an ESCRT-dependent manner. Thus, our study uncovered a conserved mechanism to down-regulate lysosome membrane proteins.

A study of how lysosomal membrane proteins are down-regulated reveals a conserved pathway involving ubiquitination of the membrane protein and subsequent internalization into the lysosome lumen by the ESCRT machinery for degradation.     

Isolation of rat liver lysosomes by isopycnic centrifugation in a metrizamide gradient

A preparation, similar to the light mitochondrial fraction of rat liver (L fraction of de Duve et al, (1955, Biochem. J. 60: 604-617), was subfractionated by isopycnic centrifugation in a metrizamide gradient and the distribution of several marker enzymes was established. The granules were layered at the top or bottom of the gradient. In both cases, as ascertained by the enzyme distributions, the lysosomes are well separated from the peroxisomes. A good separation from mitochondria is obtained only when the L fraction if set down underneath the gradient. Taking into account the analytical centrifugation results, a procedure was devised to purify lysosomes from several grams of liver by centrifugation of an L fraction in a discontinuous metrizamide gradient. By this method, a fraction containing 10--12% of the whole liver lysosomes can be prepared. As inferred from the relative specific activity of marker enzymes, it can be estimated that lysosomes are purified between 66 and 80 times in this fraction. As ascertained by plasma membrane marker enzyme activity, the main contaminant could be the plasma membrane components. However, cytochemical tests for 5'AMPase and for acid phosphatase suggest that a large part of the plasma membrane marker enzyme activity present in the purified lysosome preparation could be associated with the lysosomal membrane. The procedure for the isolation of rat liver lysosomes described in this paper is compared with the already existing methods.     

Lysosomal apparatus of some body tissues in hemorrhage-induced hypoxia ]

The experiments on 40 Wistar male rats with acute circulatory-hemic hypoxia induced by hemorrhage in amount of 15-20% of circulating blood volume were carried out to study the state of lysosomal apparatus of the liver and lung tissues as to changes in activity of acid phosphatase (AP), a marker enzyme of lysosomes. In the case of such a hemorrhage the common activity of AP decreased by 37% in the liver tissue and by 41% in the lung tissue, the free activity increased by 30% and 25%, and bound activity decreased by 84 and 70% in homogenates of the corresponding tissues. Under these conditions the activity of the above lysosomal enzyme in blood plasma became five times as higher as control. A conclusion is made concerning the circulatory-hemic hypoxia influence on the lysosomal membrane's structures of organ's tissues cells (as one can judge by the example of liver and lungs), which is observed in an increase of permeability of lysosome membrane and causes a sharp increase of AP enzymia in blood plasma.     

Changes in lysosomal enzyme activity in the mitotic cycle of L cells

Activities of lysosomal enzymes (acid phosphatase, N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase, acid lipase and cathepsin D) have been examined in a synchronized culture of mouse L-fibroblasts. Cell synchronization was achieved by the double thymidine block with a subsequent mitotic selection after colcemid treatment. Specific activities of the enzymes studied were found to be higher in S-G2 that in G1. There is a linear increase (approximate doubling) in enzyme activities per cell from G1 to M. Activity of galactosyltransferase, a marker of the Golgi apparatus, declined in mitotic cells in comparison with the interphase cells. Ultrastructural examination of L-cells revealed a reduction of the intracellular membrane system including the Golgi apparatus during mitosis. Changes in the Golgi apparatus activity have been considered as a possible regulatory point of lysosome formation. The data presented are compared with the results of morphological studies of lysosomal system in L-cells.     

Acetyl-coenzyme A:alpha-glucosaminide N-acetyltransferase. Evidence for an active site histidine residue

The lysosomal membrane enzyme acetyl-CoA:alpha-glucosaminide N-acetyltransferase catalyzes the transfer of the acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to terminal alpha-linked glucosamine residues of heparan sulfate. The reaction appears to be a transmembrane process: the enzyme is acetylated on the outside of the lysosome, and the acetyl group is transferred across the membrane to the inside of the lysosome where it is used to acetylate glucosamine. To determine the reactive site residues involved in the acetylation reaction, lysosomal membranes were treated with various amino acid modification reagents and assayed for enzyme activity. Although four thiol modification reagents were examined, only one, p-chloromercuribenzoate inactivated the N-acetyltransferase. Thiol modification by p-chloromercuribenzoate did not appear to occur at the active site since inactivation was still observed in the presence of the substrate acetyl-CoA. N-Acetyltransferase could be inactivated by N-bromosuccinimide, even after pretreatment with reagents specific for tyrosine and tryptophan, suggesting that the modified residue is a histidine. Diethyl pyrocarbonate, another histidine modification reagent, could also inactivate the enzyme; this inactivation could be reversed by incubation with hydroxylamine. N-Bromosuccinimide and diethyl pyrocarbonate modifications appear to be at the active site of the enzyme since co-incubation with acetyl-CoA protects the N-acetyltransferase from inactivation. This protection is lost if glucosamine is also present. Pre-acetylated lysosomal membranes are also able to provide protection from N-bromosuccinimide inactivation, providing further evidence for a histidine moiety at the active site and for the existence of an acetyl-enzyme intermediate.     

β-Glucuronidase and hexosaminidase are marker enzymes for different compartments of the endo-lysosomal system in mussel digestive cells

In environmental toxicology, the most commonly used techniques used to visualise lysosomes in order to determine their responses to pollutants (LSC test: lysosomal structural changes test; LMS test: lysosomal membrane stability test) are based on the histochemical application of lysosomal marker enzymes. In mussel digestive cells, the marker enzymes used are β-glucuronidase (β-Gus) and hexosaminidase (Hex). The present work has been aimed at determining the distribution of these lysosomal marker enzymes in the various compartments of the endo-lysosomal system (ELS) of mussel digestive cells and at exploring whether intercellular transfer of lysosomal enzymes occurs between digestive and basophilic cells. Immunogold cytochemistry has allowed us to conclude that β-Gus is present in every compartment of the digestive cell ELS, whereas Hex is not so widely distributed. Moreover, Hex is intimately linked to the lysosomal membrane, whereas β-Gus appears to be not necessarily membrane-bound. Therefore, two populations of heterolysosomes with different enzyme load and membrane stability have been distinguished in the digestive cell. In addition, heterolysosomes of different electron density have been commonly observed merging together by contact; we suggest that some might act as storage granules for lysosomal enzymes. On the other hand, β-Gus seems to be released to the digestive alveolar lumen in secretory lysosomes produced by basophilic cells and endocytosed by digestive cells. Regarding the implications of the present study on the interpretation of lysosomal biomarkers, we conclude that β-Gus, but not Hex, histochemistry provides an appropriate marker for the LSC test and that, although both lysosomal marker enzymes can be employed in the LMS test, different values would be obtained depending on the marker enzyme employed. This study was funded by the University of the Basque Country through a grant to Consolidated Research Groups. U.I. is a recipient of a pre-doctoral fellowship from the Basque Government.     

Specificity and multiple forms of beta-galactosidase in the rat.

1. Ten rat tissues and organs have been assayed for beta-galactosidase with phenyl beta-d-galactoside, p-nitrophenyl beta-d-galactoside, p-aminophenyl beta-d-galactoside and 4-methylumbelliferyl beta-d-galactoside as substrates. 2. The relative activities of these tissues are independent of the mode of assay, and maximum rates of hydrolysis are not greatly affected by the nature of the substrate. 3. Inhibition studies suggest the liver enzyme has no associated beta-glucosidase activity. 4. There is no cellular localization of preferential activity towards any of the four substrates in liver, kidney or spleen. 5. Evidence suggesting the non-destructive penetration of liver lysosomal membranes by p-nitrophenyl beta-d-galactoside is presented. 6. Liver lysosomal beta-galactosidase exists in multiple forms that can be separated on DEAE-cellulose, and the enzyme components that are bound to the membrane appear to be similar to those of the lysosome sap. 7. The chromatographic pattern of enzyme excreted in the urine is compared with those from the kidney, intestine, spleen and liver.