科尔沁温带草甸能量平衡的日季变化特征

利用2011年9月—2012年10月涡度相关数据和气象观测资料,对科尔沁温带草甸能量平衡的日季变化特征进行分析.结果表明:研究区涡度相关系统全年的能量平衡闭合度为0.77,不同时期能量平衡闭合度的大小顺序为:生长季裸土期积雪期.能量平衡各分量日变化均呈单峰曲线形式,净辐射日变化峰值出现在12:00前后,其余分量的峰值出现时间都稍有滞后.净辐射季节变化呈单峰曲线形式,年平均值为5.71 MJ·m-2·d-1.潜热通量季节变化趋势与净辐射相似,年平均值为2.84 MJ·m-2·d-1.感热通量季节变化呈双峰曲线形式,峰值分别出现在4月和9月,年平均值为1.87 MJ·m-2·d-1.土壤热通量的最大值(3.47 MJ·m-2·d-1)出现在4月,9月以后开始转为负值.全年能量平衡各分量收支比例的大小顺序为:潜热通量感热通量土壤热通量,潜热通量、感热通量和土壤热通量分别占净辐射的49.8%、35.8%和3.1%.全年波文比的季节变化近似"U"型,平均值为1.61;生长季数值较小且较为平稳,平均值为0.18;非生长季数值较大且波动较大,平均值为2.39.     

黄土高原半干旱草地地表能量通量及闭合率

利用兰州大学半干旱气候与环境观测站(简称SACOL站)2008年的湍流、辐射、土壤温度和通量梯度观测资料,分析了地表能量通量的日变化、季节变化及能量分配特征,讨论了典型黄土高原沟壑区土壤热量储存对地表能量闭合率的影响.结果表明:黄土高原半干旱草地全年获得的净辐射约为2.269×103 MJ/m2,感热、潜热和土壤热通量年总量分别为1.210×103 MJ/m2、1.117×103 MJ/m2和0.069×103 MJ/m2;能量平衡各分量季节变化明显,日变化呈单峰型.从各能量分量占净辐射的比例来看,黄土高原半干旱草地净辐射主要以感热形式加热大气.草原生长期的能量闭合率为86.8％,非生长期的能量闭合率为76.5％.与未考虑0-5cm深度的土壤热量储存相比,草原生长期能量闭合率提高了11.3％,非生长期能量闭合率提高了12.0％.     

内蒙古温带荒漠草原生态系统水热通量动态

基于2008年全年内蒙古温带荒漠草原的水热通量观测数据,对荒漠草原水、热通量的日、季动态进行了分析.结果表明：温带荒漠草原感热通量和潜热通量的日动态均呈单峰型曲线,在12:00-13:30左右达最大值,其与地表净辐射的日变化趋势基本一致,但感热和潜热的峰值出现时间较地表净辐射峰值出现时间滞后约1 h;温带荒漠草原感热通量和潜热通量的日累积最大值分别为319.01和425.37 W·m^-2,分别出现在5月30日和6月2日;月均感热通量与潜热通量的最大值分别出现在5月和6月,最小值分别出现在1月和12月.研究区土壤含水量与降水的相关性较好,表层土壤含水量对降水的反应最敏感,深层土壤水分对降水的反应存在位相滞后.感热通量和潜热通量的季节动态与地表净辐射基本一致,均受降水影响.感热通量受地表净辐射的影响明显,而潜热通量对降水的反应较敏感,且土壤含水量在潜热通量中起主要作用.     

黄河小浪底人工混交林生长季能量平衡特征

利用涡度相关系统和小气候梯度观测系统,对黄河小浪底人工混交林2012年生长季(5—9月)各能量通量进行了连续观测,分析了该生态系统能量平衡各项的变化特征,讨论了能量闭合状况。结果表明:潜热通量、感热通量和土壤热通量均与净辐射有类似的日变化特征。各项的绝对值大小表现为净辐射潜热通量感热通量土壤热通量。受日照时数的影响,5—9月能量平衡各项正值的日持续时间逐渐缩短。生长季,净辐射、感热通量和土壤热通量在6月份最大,最大值分别为418.5、231.4和12.5 MJ m-2month-1);潜热通量在7月份达到最大,最大值为320.8 MJ m-2month-1)。潜热通量、感热通量和土壤热通量占净辐射的比例分别在0.48—0.62、0.15—0.55、0.02—0.05之间。人工混交林生长季的能量分配主要以潜热通量和感热通量为主,且潜热通量为感热通量的2倍。波文比呈单峰曲线:6月最大,8月最小。黄河小浪底人工混交林生长季全天能量闭合度为79%。其中,白天闭合程度较高(81%),夜晚较低(41%)。本研究站点存在21%的能量不闭合。其原因可能与通量源区面积不匹配、忽略冠层热储存、湍流能的相位差等有关。     

亚热带毛竹林生态系统能量通量及平衡分析

利用开路涡度相关系统和常规气象观测仪器,对亚热带(浙江省)毛竹林生态系统2011年的净辐射、显热通量、潜热通量、土壤热通量以及气温、地温、降雨量等气象要素进行了连续观测,定量分析了毛竹林生态系统能量通量的变化和各能量分量的分配特征,并计算了能量闭合度以及波文比。结果表明:毛竹林全年净辐射为2628.00 MJ/m2,显热通量为576.80 MJ/m2,潜热通量为1666.77 MJ/m2,土壤热通量为-7.52 MJ/m2,土壤为热源,各能量分量季节变化明显,日变化基本呈单峰型曲线变化。显热通量占净辐射的22.0%,潜热通量占63.4%,毛竹林生态系统潜热通量为能量散失的主要形式。波文比逐月变化规律不明显,波动较大,在0.07—1.77之间变化,能量平衡比率法得出毛竹林年能量闭合度为0.85,月平均闭合度为0.84,能量闭合度高于线性回归法计算结果,但仍有15%的能量不闭合。     

高效经营雷竹林生态系统能量通量过程及闭合度

利用开路涡度相关系统和常规气象仪,对高效经营的雷竹林生态系统2011年的显热通量、潜热通量、净辐射、土壤热通量以及气温、地温、降雨量进行了观测,分析该生态系统能量通量的变化,以及各能量分量的分配特征,并计算了波文比及能量闭合.结果表明：雷竹林全年净辐射为2928.92 MJ·m^-2,潜热通量、显热通量和土壤热通量分别为1384.90、92754和-28.27 MJ·m^-2,各能量分量的日变化和月变化基本呈单峰曲线.潜热通量为能量散失主要形式,占净辐射的47.3%,显热通量占31.7%,波文比呈“U”型曲线,在0.285～2.062之间变化,土壤为热源.雷竹林年能量闭合度为0.782,月平均闭合度为0.808.
     

黄土丘陵沟壑区农林草地土壤热量状况及植被生长响应——以燕沟流域为例

利用CoupModel模型模拟了黄土丘陵沟壑区燕沟流域刺槐(Robinia pseudoacacia)林地、辽东栎(Quercus liaotungensis)林地、荒草地、农地等7种土地类型的土壤热量状况,分析了不同植被类型的潜热通量、感热通量、土壤热通量以及植被生长对土壤热量的响应.结果表明,农地潜热通量较小,林地和荒草地潜热通量较大,各地类潜热通量季节变化规律基本一致.潜热通量是黄土丘陵区土壤-植被-大气系统能量的主要支出项,占总净辐射的72.1%～81.4%以上;感热通量变化振幅相对较小,占总净辐射的16.4%～26.4%;土壤热通量仅占总净辐射的1.4%～2.4%,但直接影响土壤温度的变化速度和变化时间.试验地各地类地表温度随季节的变化趋势均呈单峰曲线型.2～7月份0～20cm平均土壤温度随累积土壤热通量的增大而升高,9月到翌年1月份0～20cm平均土壤温度随累积土壤热通量的减小而降低,但累积土壤热通量的变化滞后于土壤温度变化.同一植被类型条件下,阳坡土壤温度年变幅显著高于阴坡.在阴坡,0cm、10cm、20cm深土壤温度年变幅农地＞阴坡荒草地＞阴坡辽东栎林地＞阴坡刺槐林地;在阳坡,阳坡荒草地＞阳坡刺槐林地＞阳坡辽东栎林地.阴坡刺槐林地、阴坡荒草地和农地0～20cm土壤温度达到5℃以上的时间比阳坡刺槐林和阳坡荒草地推迟1周左右,根系开始生长活动的时间也推迟1周左右;而阴坡辽东栎林地则晚于阳坡辽东栎林地5d左右,根系开始生长活动的时间也较阳坡辽东栎林晚5d左右.出叶时间阳坡刺槐林和阳坡荒草地植物比阴坡刺槐林、阴坡荒草地和阳坡辽东栎林的早1周左右,比阴坡辽东栎林早12d左右.     

我国亚热带毛竹林生长季能量通量过程及闭合度分析

为探讨我国亚热带毛竹林(Phyllostachys edulis)生长季的能量平衡关系,利用开路涡度相关法,对2011年毛竹林生长季的能量通量的变化特征进行了研究,并应用能量平衡比率法和线性回归2种方法,分析了能量闭合的特点。结果表明,我国亚热带毛竹林生长季的净辐射总量为1738.2 MJ m–2,显热通量为354.3 MJ m–2,潜热通量为1146.0 MJ m–2,土壤热通量为58.9 MJ m–2,土壤为热汇,显热通量占净辐射的20.4%,潜热通量占65.9%,土壤热通量占3.4%。毛竹林生长季的能量闭合度为0.89,月平均闭合度为0.91,但仍有11%的能量不闭合。可见,毛竹林生长季以潜热能量散失形式为主,各能量分量均以净辐射变化为基础,且日变化基本呈单峰型曲线。     

西双版纳热带季雨林通量分配及能量平衡问题北大核心CSCD

为了探讨我国西双版纳热带季雨林的能量分配和平衡问题,利用涡度相关系统和常规气象仪器的连续监测结果,分析了不同季节的能量通量特征和闭合特点。结果表明,西双版纳热带季雨林全年的净辐射、潜热通量、显热通量、土壤热通量和热储存量分别是4546.07、2453.24、492.22、-10.47和45.93 MJ/m^(2),土壤为热源,潜热年总值占净辐射的54.0%,显热占10.8%,能量以蒸发散为主要的耗损形式。辐射和能量有明显的日变化和季节动态,各能量分量的日变化几乎都呈白天高夜间低的单峰趋势,反照率整体为0.10~0.12,波动不大;波文比季节差异明显,为0~0.8。热带季雨林的全年闭合度为0.67,未考虑热储量时,闭合度为0.51~0.79,考虑热储量为0.53~0.80。可见,在林冠茂密的热带季雨林中,热储量对能量闭合度的贡献不大,忽略热储量并不是导致能量不闭合的主要原因。     

宁南退耕还草区近地面湍流通量观测初报

根据 2 0 0 2～ 2 0 0 3年小气候考察资料 ,分别分析了四季晴天条件下宁南退耕还草区净辐射、感热、潜热和土壤热通量比例和变化特征。结果表明 ,近地层各通量有较规则的日变化。白天 ,感热通量占净辐射的 5 0 %以上 ,一般达 80 %～ 10 0 %。只有夏季全天和秋季白天的潜热通量为正 ,在春季的早晨和秋季的傍晚潜热通量为负。冬春季节土壤的热量收支大于夏秋季节。     

黄河三角洲芦苇湿地生态系统碳、水热通量特征

利用涡度相关法对黄河三角洲芦苇湿地生态系统进行了连续两年的通量观测,对2009—2010年生长季芦苇湿地的净生态系统碳交换量(NEE),感热通量(Hs)和潜热通量(LE)数据进行了分析。结果表明,在日尺度上,芦苇湿地NEE日变化特征表现为两个CO2吸收高峰,分别出现在11:00和16:00左右,其特点是在午间出现了碳交换通量的降低。CO2吸收的日最大值在两个生长季出现的时间有所不同,分别出现在2009年7月(-0.30 mg CO2m-2s-1)和2010年6月(-0.37 mg CO2m-2s-1)。CO2排放的日最大值两个生长季均出现在9月,分别为0.19和0.25 mg CO2m-2s-1。Hs和LE的日动态均为单峰型,极值都出现在中午前后,生长季生态系统的能量消耗主要以潜热为主,且在日尺度上,热通量和NEE有显著的负相关关系。在季节尺度上,芦苇湿地生长季具有明显的碳汇功能,2009年生长季生态系统白天固定354.63 g CO2/m2,同时期夜间释放159.24 g CO2/m2,净CO2吸收量为-195.39 g CO2/m2。2009年整个生长季生态系统总初级生产力(GPP)为-651.13 g CO2/m2,生态系统呼吸(Re)为455.74 g CO2/m2,系统表现为碳汇。路径分析表明:光合有效辐射(PAR)显著影响NEE的日动态(R2=0.46—0.84),而NEE的季节动态主要受土壤温度的影响,降水和PAR的影响次之。     

东北阔叶红松林能量平衡特征

采用涡度相关法,结合小气候观测,对东北阔叶红松林的能量平衡特征进行了研究。结果表明,森林全年获得的辐射能量为2.3×109J/m2,平均净辐射(Rn)强度为72.1 W/m2,12月最小,平均为5.8W/m2,6月最大,平均为127 W/m2。除了受太阳高度角的支配,Rn对中小尺度天气变化响应显著。非生长季,森林主要能量支出项为感热通量(H),约占Rn的72%,H最大值出现在5月份;生长季,主要能量支出项为潜热通量(LE),约占Rn的60%,LE最大值出现在7月份。全年因蒸散消耗的能量为1.2×109J/m2,占净辐射的52%,森林蒸散的水量为493mm,占降水量的88%。波文比β近似呈U字型变化,其值受森林物候变化影响显著,在非生长季平均值约为3.0,生长季为0.5左右。土壤热通量(G)在非生长季表现为能量平衡方程的收入项,约占有效能量的5.0%;生长季表现为支出项,约占有效能量的4.0%,其变化过程与土壤温度梯度及叶面积指数密切相关。长白山通量观测站能量平衡收支闭合度为86%,不闭合的原因有待于进一步的研究。     

宁南半干旱地区农田和草地生态系统能量通量的季节变化

根据2002~2003年宁南山区不同下垫面小气候考察资料,用能量平衡法计算了不同下垫面不同季节的感热、潜热通量。分析结果表明:(1)宁南半干旱地区夏季农田和草地的净辐射峰值可达到700W/m2以上,土壤热通量的值比净辐射小1个量级。同类下垫面净辐射通量日积分值夏季>春季>秋季>冬季。(2)宁南半干旱山区感热输送强度以典型草地的最大,其次是禁牧草地,稀树草地的最小。春季各类下垫面地表热量平衡以感热输送为主。在春、夏、秋季的晴天,感热通量日积分值为正,冬季为负。(3)农田在夏、秋季、冬季水汽输送大于各类草地的,其次是稀树草地的,典型草地向上的水汽输送量是最小的。夏季白天农田β在0.2~0.7,稀树草地β为0.2~1.0,能量输送以潜热为主。禁牧草地β为0.2~9.2,典型草地为1.5~13.1,能量输送以感热为主。(4)宁南半干旱地区宜退耕,发展典型草原,在水分充足的山地背阴坡少量发展稀树草地。     

城市公园绿地水、热与CO2通量观测与分析

水、热和CO2通量是评价城市绿地生态效益的重要指标。在北京海淀公园中部和边缘架设涡度相关系统,连续观测和定量研究城市公园绿地影响下的通量变化特征。结果表明,公园绿地所获得的净辐射在植被生长季节大部分用于植被的蒸散作用,潜热大于显热;而在植被非生长季节大部分用于显热,潜热数值非常小。晴天显热与潜热的比值在春季随着植被枝叶的生长逐渐减少,到夏季达到最小值约1/3,在秋季随着植被叶片枯黄逐渐变大,冬季达到数倍。公园绿地能量平衡率在52%～83%,普遍存在能量不平衡。公园中部的潜热观测值大于公园边缘,而显热小于公园边缘;公园中部CO2通量日均值为负,公园绿地是CO2汇。公园绿地在植被生长季节具有明显的降温增湿、吸收CO2等生态效应。     

鼎湖山针阔混交林旱季能量平衡研究

运用涡度相关(Eddycovariance,EC)法开路系统、常规微气象观测系统及土壤热通量板等设施对鼎湖山季风常绿阔叶林旱季(2003／1／9—2003／1／23)的能量分量进行测定。结果表明,平均净辐射通量(Net radiation,Rn)为53．14Wm^2,与下行短波辐射具有相同的变化趋势。林冠上层EC法潜热通量(Latent heat,LE)、显热通量(Sensible heat,Hs)实测平均值分别为57．18Wm^-2,43．40Wm^-2,林冠下层分别为12．61Wm^-2、7．61Wm^-2。白昼EC法所测得的LE和Hs数据与利用波文比．能量平衡法(Bowen ratio and energy balance,BREB)计算出的数据相比,略偏低,而夜间及凌晨数据差异较大。土壤热通量日变化曲线呈“S”形,平均土壤热通量为．1．50Wm^-2,表面土壤总热通量(Gt)仅为5cm处土壤热通量的84．0％,可见表层土壤尽管很薄,但其热储量不能忽略。将LE、Hs之和与可供能量(Rn—Gt)进行闭合,回归直线斜率为0．9128,相关系数达0．8517,与许多研究结果的60％-90％的区间相符,这说明鼎湖山涡度相关法通量观测数据是非常可靠的。     

Impacts of elevated CO2 concentration on the productivity and surface energy budget of the soybean and maize agroecosystem in the Midwest USA

The physiological response of vegetation to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration ([CO₂]) modifies productivity and surface energy and water fluxes. Quantifying this response is required for assessments of future climate change. Many global climate models account for this response; however, significant uncertainty remains in model simulations of this vegetation response and its impacts. Data from in situ field experiments provide evidence that previous modeling studies may have overestimated the increase in productivity at elevated [CO₂], and the impact on large‐scale water cycling is largely unknown. We parameterized the Agro‐IBIS dynamic global vegetation model with observations from the SoyFACE experiment to simulate the response of soybean and maize to an increase in [CO₂] from 375 ppm to 550 ppm. The two key model parameters that were found to vary with [CO₂] were the maximum carboxylation rate of photosynthesis and specific leaf area. Tests of the model that used SoyFACE parameter values showed a good fit to site‐level data for all variables except latent heat flux over soybean and sensible heat flux over both crops. Simulations driven with historic climate data over the central USA showed that increased [CO₂] resulted in decreased latent heat flux and increased sensible heat flux from both crops when averaged over 30 years. Thirty‐year average soybean yield increased everywhere (ca. 10%); however, there was no increase in maize yield except during dry years. Without accounting for CO₂ effects on the maximum carboxylation rate of photosynthesis and specific leaf area, soybean simulations at 550 ppm overestimated leaf area and yield. Our results highlight important model parameter values that, if not modified in other models, could result in biases when projecting future crop–climate–water relationships.     

Estimation of surface heat flux and temperature distributions in a multilayer tissue based on the hyperbolic model of heat conduction

In this study, an inverse algorithm based on the conjugate gradient method and the discrepancy principle is applied to solve the inverse hyperbolic heat conduction problem in estimating the unknown time-dependent surface heat flux in a skin tissue, which is stratified into epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layers, from the temperature measurements taken within the medium. Subsequently, the temperature distributions in the tissue can be calculated as well. The concept of finite heat propagation velocity is applied to the modeling of the bioheat transfer problem. The inverse solutions will be justified based on the numerical experiments in which two different heat flux distributions are to be determined. The temperature data obtained from the direct problem are used to simulate the temperature measurements. The influence of measurement errors on the precision of the estimated results is also investigated. Results show that an excellent estimation on the time-dependent surface heat flux can be obtained for the test cases considered in this study.     

Eddy-correlation system for long-term monitoring of fluxes of heat, water vapour and CO2

An eddy-correlation system is presented that was designed with special focus on long-term measurements of turbulent fluxes in the atmospheric boundary layer. It consists of a SOLENT sonic anemometer, a fast temperature sensor, and a LI-COR LI 6262 closed-path infrared gas analyser. The use of a fast temperature sensor turned out to be necessary because of errors in the sound virtual temperature measured by the sonic anemometer at high wind speeds. The components are combined with special attention paid to protection against lightning and other environmental stresses. The data acquisition program SOLCOM runs on standalone systems or in a network environment and performs ‘quasi on-line’ data processing, on-line graphical display of single data and fluxes, and on-line correction of the raw data. Raw data can be stored continuously on DAT tapes. All data handling can be done by remote access, thus only a minimum amount of m situ maintenance is required. Power spectra of vertical and longitudinal wind speed, air temperature, air humidity and carbon dioxide concentration showed to follow the -2/3 law quite well. There was some noise in the high frequency range of the carbon dioxide spectrum. However, the corresponding cross spectra with the vertical wind component showed less deviation from a straight line in the high frequency range. The sum of convective heat fluxes and soil heat flux showed good agreement with the measured net radiation for several months and it was concluded that the system described here constitute a good platform for long-term flux measurements over forest.     

Estimating the uncertainty in annual net ecosystem carbon exchange: spatial variation in turbulent fluxes and sampling errors in eddy-covariance measurements

Above forest canopies, eddy covariance (EC) measurements of mass (CO₂, H₂O vapor) and energy exchange, assumed to represent ecosystem fluxes, are commonly made at one point in the roughness sublayer (RSL). A spatial variability experiment, in which EC measurements were made from six towers within the RSL in a uniform pine plantation, quantified large and dynamic spatial variation in fluxes. The spatial coefficient of variation (CV) of the scalar fluxes decreased with increasing integration time, stabilizing at a minimum that was independent of further lengthening the averaging period (hereafter a ‘stable minimum’). For all three fluxes, the stable minimum (CV=9–11%) was reached at averaging times (τ_p) of 6–7 h during daytime, but higher stable minima (CV=46–158%) were reached at longer τ_p (>12 h) during nighttime. To the extent that decreasing CV of EC fluxes reflects reduction in micrometeorological sampling errors, half of the observed variability at τ_p=30 min is attributed to sampling errors. The remaining half (indicated by the stable minimum CV) is attributed to underlying variability in ecosystem structural properties, as determined by leaf area index, and perhaps associated ecosystem activity attributes. We further assessed the spatial variability estimates in the context of uncertainty in annual net ecosystem exchange (NEE). First, we adjusted annual NEE values obtained at our long‐term observation tower to account for the difference between this tower and the mean of all towers from this experiment; this increased NEE by up to 55 g C m^?2 yr^?1. Second, we combined uncertainty from gap filling and instrument error with uncertainty because of spatial variability, producing an estimate of variability in annual NEE ranging from 79 to 127 g C m^?2 yr^?1. This analysis demonstrated that even in such a uniform pine plantation, in some years spatial variability can contribute ～50% of the uncertainty in annual NEE estimates.