Control of Nitrification by Tree Species in a Common-Garden Experiment

We studied the effect of tree species on nitrification in five young plantations and an old native beech coppice forest at the Breuil experimental site in central France. The potential net nitrification (PNN) of soil was high in beech, Corsican pine, and Douglas fir plantations (high nitrifying stands denoted H) and low in spruce and Nordmann fir plantations as well as in native forest stands (low nitrifying stands denoted L). We hypothesized that tree species would stimulate or inhibit nitrification in transplanted soil cores within a few years after the cores were transplanted between stands. We first initiated a transplant experiment where soil cores were exchanged between all stands. The PNN remained high in soil cores from H transferred to H and low in soil cores from L transferred to L. The PNN increased considerably after 16 months in soil cores transferred from L to H, whereas the transfer of soil cores from H to L decreased the PNN only slightly after 28 months. In a second transplant experiment, forest floor material was exchanged between the Douglas fir (H) and the native forest (L) stand. Six months later, the forest floor from the native forest had increased the PNN of the Douglas fir soil considerably, whereas the forest floor from Douglas fir did not affect the PNN of the soil in the native forest stand. It was concluded that beech, Corsican pine, and Douglas fir rapidly stimulate soil nitrification by either activation of suppressed nitrifier communities and/or colonization by new nitrifier communities. Conversely, the slow and irregular reduction of nitrification in spruce, Nordmann fir, and native forest was probably due to the low and heterogeneously distributed flux of inhibiting substances per volume of soil. Our experiments suggest that the inhibition of nitrification is not tightly connected to forest floor leachates, but that the forest floor both reflects and maintains the major ongoing processes. In the long term, humus build up and the production of inhibiting substances may completely block the nitrification activity.     

改变碳输入对亚热带人工林土壤微生物生物量和群落组成的影响

通过在亚热带杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)和米老排(Mytilaria laosensis)人工林中设置互换凋落物、去除凋落物、去除凋落物+去除根系和对照处理来分析改变地上、地下碳输入对人工林土壤微生物生物量和群落组成的影响。结果显示,改变地上、地下碳输入对土壤微生物生物量碳、氮的影响因树种而异。在米老排林中,土壤微生物生物量不受碳源的限制。而在杉木林中,加入米老排凋落物、去除凋落物和去除凋落物+去除根系3种处理中土壤微生物生物量碳、氮具有明显增加的趋势。磷脂脂肪酸分析结果显示,杉木林中,添加高质量的米老排凋落物后,革兰氏阳性细菌、阴性细菌、丛枝菌根真菌、放线菌和真菌群落生物量分别显著增加了24%、24%、53%、25%、28%,革兰氏阴性细菌和丛枝菌根真菌的相对丰度均有显著增加。与对照相比,杉木林中去除凋落物后革兰氏阳性细菌、阴性细菌、丛枝菌根真菌、放线菌和真菌群落生物量分别显著增加了22%、29%、44%、25%、52%,真菌与细菌比值显著增加了21%。但是,去除凋落物+去除根系处理对两个树种人工林土壤微生物群落组成均无显著影响。米老排和杉木林土壤微生物生物量碳、氮的季节变化格局不同,土壤养分有效性可能是驱动土壤微生物生物量季节变化的主要因子。未来研究需要关注凋落物和根系在不同树种人工林中对土壤微生物群落的相对贡献。     

Response of Microbial Community Composition and Function to Soil Climate Change

Soil microbial communities mediate critical ecosystem carbon and nutrient cycles. How microbial communities will respond to changes in vegetation and climate, however, are not well understood. We reciprocally transplanted soil cores from under oak canopies and adjacent open grasslands in a California oak–grassland ecosystem to determine how microbial communities respond to changes in the soil environment and the potential consequences for the cycling of carbon. Every 3 months for up to 2 years, we monitored microbial community composition using phospholipid fatty acid analysis (PLFA), microbial biomass, respiration rates, microbial enzyme activities, and the activity of microbial groups by quantifying ¹³C uptake from a universal substrate (pyruvate) into PLFA biomarkers. Soil in the open grassland experienced higher maximum temperatures and lower soil water content than soil under the oak canopies. Soil microbial communities in soil under oak canopies were more sensitive to environmental change than those in adjacent soil from the open grassland. Oak canopy soil communities changed rapidly when cores were transplanted into the open grassland soil environment, but grassland soil communities did not change when transplanted into the oak canopy environment. Similarly, microbial biomass, enzyme activities, and microbial respiration decreased when microbial communities were transplanted from the oak canopy soils to the grassland environment, but not when the grassland communities were transplanted to the oak canopy environment. These data support the hypothesis that microbial community composition and function is altered when microbes are exposed to new extremes in environmental conditions; that is, environmental conditions outside of their “life history” envelopes.     

Impact of Ectomycorrhizosphere on the Functional Diversity of Soil Bacterial and Fungal Communities from a Forest Stand in Relation to Nutrient Mobilization Processes

The ectomycorrhizal symbiosis alters the physicochemical and biological conditions in the surrounding soil, thus creating a particular environment called ectomycorrhizosphere, which selects microbial communities suspected to play a role in gross production and nutrient cycling. To assess the ectomycorrhizosphere effect on the structure of microbial communities potentially involved in the mobilization of nutrients from the soil minerals in a poor-nutrient environment, we compared the functional diversity of soil and ectomycorrhizosphere bacterial communities in a forest stand. Two hundred and sixty-four bacterial strains and 107 fungal strains were isolated from the bulk soil of an oak (Quercus petraea) stand and from oak–Scleroderma citrinum ectomycorrhizosphere and ectomycorrhizae, in two soil organo-mineral horizons (0 to 3 cm and 5 to 10 cm). They were characterized using two in vitro tests related to their capacities to mobilize iron and phosphorus. We demonstrated that the oak–S. citrinum ectomycorrhizosphere significantly structures the culturable bacterial communities in the two soil horizons by selecting very efficient strains for phosphorus and iron mobilization. This effect was also observed on the diversity of the phosphate-solubilizing fungal communities in the lower soil horizon. A previous study already demonstrated that Laccaria bicolor–Douglas fir ectomycorrhizosphere structures the functional diversity of Pseudomonas fluorescens population in a forest nursery soil. Comparing to it, our work highlights the consistency of the mycorrhizosphere effect on the functional diversity of bacterial and fungal communities in relation to the mineral weathering process, no matter the fungal symbiont, the age and species of the host tree, or the environment (nursery vs forest). We also demonstrated that the intensity of phosphorus and iron mobilization by the ectomycorrhizosphere bacteria isolated from the lower soil horizon was significantly higher compared to that which was isolated from the upper horizon. This reveals for the first time a stratification of the functional diversity of the culturable soil bacterial communities as related to phosphorus and iron mobilization.     

Microbial Diversity During Cellulose Decomposition in Different Forest Stands: I. Microbial Communities and Environmental Conditions

We studied the effect of forest tree species on a community of decomposers that colonize cellulose strips. Both fungal and bacterial communities were targeted in a native forest dominated by beech and oak and 30-year-old beech and spruce plantations, growing in similar ecological conditions in the Breuil-Chenue experimental forest site in Morvan (France). Microbial ingrowths from the 3rd to 10th month of strip decomposition (May to December 2004) were studied. Community composition was assessed using temperature gradient gel electrophoresis with universal fungal (ITS1F, ITS2) and bacterial (1401r, 968f) primers. Soil temperature and moisture as well as fungal biomass were also measured to give additional information on decomposition processes. Changing the dominant tree species had no significant influence in the number of decomposer species. However, decomposer community composition was clearly different. If compared to the native forest, where community composition highly differed, young monocultures displayed similar species structure for fungi and bacteria. Both species numbers and community composition evolved during the decay process. Time effect was found to be more important than tree species. Nevertheless, the actual environmental conditions and seasonal effect seemed to be even more determining factors for the development of microbial communities. The course and correlations of the explored variables often differed between tree species, although certain general trends were identified. Fungal biomass was high in summer, despite that species richness (SR) decreased and conversely, that high SR did not necessarily mean high biomass values. It can be concluded that the growth and development of the microbiological communities that colonized a model material in situ depended on the combination of physical and biological factors acting collectively and interdependently at the forest soil microsite.     

杉木人工林土壤活性有机质变化特征

在中国科学院会同森林生态实验站对第一代、第二代杉木林和地带性阔叶林土壤活性有机质主要组分进行了研究.结果表明,土壤活性有机质各组分含量均为杉木林低于阔叶林,而第二代杉木林又低于第一代杉木.第一代杉木林活性有机质总量、微生物生物量碳、水溶性有机碳和碳水化合物含量分别为18.79 g·kg^-1、421.7 mg·kg^-1、22.2 mg·kg^-1和136.3 mg·kg^-1,上述活性有机质组分在第二代杉木林中的含量分别是第一代杉木林的73.6%、87.9%、66.3%和3.2%,地带性阔叶林则分别为22.31 g·kg^-1、800. mg·kg^-1、361.1 mg·kg^-1和220.1 mg·kg^-1.相关性分析结果表明,土壤活性有机质各组分之间具有不同程度的相关性,其中土壤微生物生物量碳与其它活性有机质组分的相关性相对较高.     

Influence of Drying–Rewetting Frequency on Soil Bacterial Community Structure

Soil drying and rewetting represents a common physiological stress for the microbial communities residing in surface soils. A drying–rewetting cycle may induce lysis in a significant proportion of the microbial biomass and, for a number of reasons, may directly or indirectly influence microbial community composition. Few studies have explicitly examined the role of drying–rewetting frequency in shaping soil microbial community structure. In this experiment, we manipulated soil water stress in the laboratory by exposing two different soil types to 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, or 15 drying–rewetting cycles over a 2-month period. The two soils used for the experiment were both collected from the Sedgwick Ranch Natural Reserve in Santa Ynez, CA, one from an annual grassland, the other from underneath an oak canopy. The average soil moisture content over the course of the incubation was the same for all samples, compensating for the number of drying–rewetting cycles. At the end of the 2-month incubation we extracted DNA from soil samples and characterized the soil bacterial communities using the terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) method. We found that drying–rewetting regimes can influence bacterial community composition in oak but not in grass soils. The two soils have inherently different bacterial communities; only the bacteria residing in the oak soil, which are less frequently exposed to moisture stress in their natural environment, were significantly affected by drying–rewetting cycles. The community indices of taxonomic diversity and richness were relatively insensitive to drying–rewetting frequency. We hypothesize that drying–rewetting induced shifts in bacterial community composition may partly explain the changes in C mineralization rates that are commonly observed following exposure to numerous drying–rewetting cycles. Microbial community composition may influence soil processes, particularly in soils exposed to a significant level of environmental stress.     

Impact of Ecosystem Management on Microbial Community Level Physiological Profiles of Postmining Forest Rehabilitation

We investigated the impacts of forest thinning, prescribed fire, and contour ripping on community level physiological profiles (CLPP) of the soil microbial population in postmining forest rehabilitation. We hypothesized that these management practices would affect CLPP via an influence on the quality and quantity of soil organic matter. The study site was an area of Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata Donn ex Sm.) forest rehabilitation that had been mined for bauxite 12 years previously. Three replicate plots (20 × 20 m) were established in nontreated forest and in forest thinned from 3,000–8,000 stems ha⁻¹ to 600–800 stems ha⁻¹ in April (autumn) of 2003, followed either by a prescribed fire in September (spring) of 2003 or left nonburned. Soil samples were collected in August 2004 from two soil depths (0–5 cm and 5–10 cm) and from within mounds and furrows caused by postmining contour ripping. CLPP were not affected by prescribed fire, although the soil pH and organic carbon (C), total C and total nitrogen (N) contents were greater in burned compared with nonburned plots, and the coarse and fine litter mass lower. However, CLPP were affected by forest thinning, as were fine litter mass, soil C/N ratio, and soil pH, which were all higher in thinned than nonthinned plots. Furrow soil had greater coarse and fine litter mass, and inorganic phosphorous (P), organic P, organic C, total C, total N, ammonium, microbial biomass C contents, but lower soil pH and soil C/N ratio than mound soil. Soil pH, inorganic P, organic P, organic C, total C and N, ammonium, and microbial biomass C contents also decreased with depth, whereas soil C/N ratio increased. Differences in CLPP were largely (94%) associated with the relative utilization of gluconic, malic (greater in nonthinned than thinned soil and mound than furrow soil), l-tartaric, succinic, and uric acids (greater in thinned than nonthinned, mound than furrow, and 5–10 cm than 0–5 cm soil). The relative utilization of amino acids also tended to increase with increasing soil total C and organic C contents but decreased with increasing nitrate content, whereas the opposite was true for carboxylic acids. Only 45% of the variance in CLPP was explained using a multivariate multiple regression model, but soil C and N pools and litter mass were significant predictors of CLPP. Differences in soil textural components between treatments were also correlated with CLPP; likely causes of these differences are discussed. Our results suggest that 1 year after treatment, CLPP from this mined forest ecosystem are resilient to a spring prescribed fire but not forest thinning. We conclude that differences in CLPP are likely to result from complex interactions among soil properties that mediate substrate availability, microbial nutrient demand, and microbial community composition.     

Tree species impact the terrestrial cycle of silicon through various uptakes

The quantification of silicon (Si) uptake by tree species is a mandatory step to study the role of forest vegetations in the global cycle of Si. Forest tree species can impact the hydrological output of dissolved Si (DSi) through root induced weathering of silicates but also through Si uptake and restitution via litterfall. Here, monospecific stands of Douglas fir, Norway spruce, Black pine, European beech and oak established in identical soil and climate conditions were used to quantify Si uptake, immobilization and restitution. We measured the Si contents in various compartments of the soil–tree system and we further studied the impact of the recycling of Si by forest trees on the DSi pool. Si is mainly accumulated in leaves and needles in comparison with other tree compartments (branches, stembark and stemwood). The immobilization of Si in tree biomass represents less than 15% of the total Si uptake. Annual Si uptake by oak and European beech stands is 18.5 and 23.3 kg ha^?1 year^?1, respectively. Black pine has a very low annual Si uptake (2.3 kg ha^?1 year^?1) in comparison with Douglas fir (30.6 kg ha^?1 year^?1) and Norway spruce (43.5 kg ha^?1 year^?1). The recycling of Si by forest trees plays a major role in the continental Si cycle since tree species greatly influence the uptake and restitution of Si. Moreover, we remark that the annual tree uptake is negatively correlated with the annual DSi output at 60 cm depth. The land–ocean fluxes of DSi are certainly influenced by geochemical processes such as weathering of primary minerals and formation of secondary minerals but also by biological processes such as root uptake.     

不同林龄杉木林土壤细菌群落结构与土壤酶活性变化研究

探究不同林龄杉木人工纯林土壤中的微生物的群落演变与结构特征与酶活性变化,为杉木人工林可持续经营管理提供依据。以福建省南平市的五片不同林龄杉木林表层土壤作为研究对象,通过16SrDNA测定细菌的群落组成,分析与土壤质量密切相关的四种土壤酶活性变化,揭示细菌群落与土壤酶活性的变化机理。结果表明,微生物的多样性指数与OTU都随着林龄的增加而增加,且幼龄林、中龄林、近熟林、成熟林土壤微生物结构差异较大;不同林龄杉木人工林中包含了29个细菌门,其中酸杆菌门与变形菌门为优势菌群,根据各种群相对丰度变化以及冗余分析,放线菌门、浮霉菌门与疣微菌门等均随林龄增长出现较大变化,且与土壤可溶性有机质以及速效养分有显著相关性（P<0.05）,说明这几种细菌群落对土壤养分变化较敏感;土壤养分变化会影响土壤酶活性,蔗糖酶与全碳呈显著正相关（P<0.05）,与速效钾呈显著负相关（P<0.05）,与放线菌门呈极显著负相关（P<0.01）。脲酶与速效氮呈显著负相关（P<0.05）,脲酶与变形菌门、绿弯菌门、放线菌门、硝化螺旋菌门以及拟杆菌门均存在较强相关性。综上,不同的土壤细菌种群与酶活性对各养分变化的响应程度不一,细菌群落结构与酶活性能反映不同林龄杉木林土壤的质量变化,适量延长杉木人工林种植年限有益于土壤质量恢复。本研究结果对指导杉木人工林优质经营有重要意义。     

Lignin and cellulose concentrations in roots of Douglas fir and European beech of different diameter classes and soil depths

Comparing two tree species, we tested the effects of root diameter (up to 30 mm) and soil depth (down to 1.2 m) on the concentrations of lignin, cellulose and nitrogen (N) in roots of approximately 50-year-old Douglas fir and European beech growing in a temperate forest in South-western Germany. Fine roots (diameter 0.5–2 mm) exhibited significantly higher lignin concentrations, but lower cellulose concentrations than medium or coarse roots (diameter >5 mm). The cellulose and lignin concentrations of the roots as well as their lignin:cellulose ratios did not differ significantly among soil depths. In the Douglas fir, there was a tendency of decreasing N concentrations and increasing lignin:N ratios with increasing soil depth. This trend was absent or less pronounced in the beech. Beech roots displayed significantly higher cellulose and N concentrations and lower lignin:cellulose and lignin:N ratios than roots of the Douglas fir. Generally, the lignin concentrations of the roots did not differ between the tree species. Cellulose and lignin concentrations exhibited a significantly negative correlation. As several studies have demonstrated that plant litter decomposition is governed by the lignin:cellulose and lignin:N ratios more than by the lignin concentration of the detritus, the fraction of individual tree species in the stand composition might affect the decomposability of roots in beech–Douglas fir forests, and might also have an influence on soil carbon sequestration.     

Estimating the relative nutrient uptake from different soil depths in Quercus robur, Fagus sylvatica and Picea abies

The distribution of fine roots and external ectomycorrhizal mycelium of three species of trees was determined down to a soil depth of 55 cm to estimate the relative nutrient uptake capacity of the trees from different soil layers. In addition, a root bioassay was performed to estimate the nutrient uptake capacity of Rb⁺ and NH₄⁺ by these fine roots under standardized conditions in the laboratory. The study was performed in monocultures of oak (Quercus robur L.), European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] on sandy soil in a tree species trial in Denmark. The distribution of spruce roots was found to be more concentrated to the top layer (0–11 cm) than that of oak and beech roots, and the amount of external ectomycorrhizal mycelia was correlated to the distribution of the roots. The uptake rate of [⁸⁶Rb⁺] by oak roots declined with soil depth, while that of beech or spruce roots was not influenced by soil depth. In modelling the nutrient sustainability of forest soils, the utilization of nutrient resources in deep soil layers has been found to be a key factor. The present study shows that the more shallow-rooted spruce can have a similar capacity to take up nutrients from deeper soil layers than the more deeply rooted oak. The distribution of roots and mycelia may therefore not be a reliable parameter for describing nutrient uptake capacity by tree roots at different soil depths.     

Evidence of hydraulic lift in a young beech and oak mixed forest using 18O soil water labelling

Hydraulic lift (HL) by tree roots in a young, broad-leaved, mixed temperate European forest was investigated during the 2008 growing season by injecting ¹⁸O-enriched soil water at a depth of 75–90 cm under drought conditions experimentally imposed in a rain-exclusion system. Based on sap flow, leaf water potential, 2-D root distribution measurements, soil isotope profiles, and xylem water isotope composition, water acquisition and use by two tree species, beech (Fagus sylvatica) and oak (Quercus petraea) was compared. We showed that, unlike oak, beech experienced a marked decrease in sap flow and predawn leaf water potential with increasing soil drought. This behaviour was logical considering the shallower root system in beech than in oak. Six days after ¹⁸O-labelling, we observed isotopic enrichment in the shallower soil layers. Since the intermediate soil layers did not display any enrichment, our results clearly pointed to hydraulic lift by tree roots. The superficial enrichment that was observed in the vicinity of oak trunks and the increase in the isotopic signature of xylem sap in the oak trees but not in the beech trees confirmed the predominant role of oak in the hydraulic lift at our site. Even though facilitation for water acquisition among species was not observed here, our results suggest a potential positive contribution of species like oak toward maintaining species diversity in mixed forest ecosystems submitted to severe drought events.     

A comparative account of the microbiological characteristics of soils under natural forest,grassland and cropfield from Eastern India

Microbiological and physico-chemical characteristics of tropical forest, grassland and cropfield soils from India were investigated. The study revealed that the conversion of natural forest led to a reduction of soil organic C (26–36%), total N (26–35%), total P (33–44%), microfungal biomass (44–66%) and total microbial biomass C, N and P (25–60%) over a period of 30–50 years. Comparative analysis of microbial activity in terms of basal soil respiration revealed maximum activity in the forest and minimum in the cropfield soil. Analysis of microbial metabolic respiratory activity (qCO₂) indicated relatively greater respiratory loss of CO₂-C per unit microbial biomass in cropfield and grassland than in forest soil. Considering the importance of the microbial component in soil, we conclude that the conversion of the tropical forest to different land uses leads to the loss of biological stability of the soil.     

Soil organic carbon stock and chemical composition in four plantations of indigenous tree species in subtropical China

Subtropical China has more than 60% of the total plantation area in China and over 70% of these subtropical plantations are composed of pure coniferous species. In view of low ecosystem services and ecological instability of pure coniferous plantations, indigenous broadleaf plantations are being advocated as a prospective silvicultural management for substituting in place of large coniferous plantations in subtropical China. However, little information is known about the effects of tree species conversion on stock and stability of soil organic carbon (SOC). The four adjacent monospecific plantations were selected to examine the effects of tree species on the stock and chemical composition of SOC using elemental analysis and solid-state ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. One coniferous plantation was composed of Pinus massoniana (PM), and the three broadleaf plantations were Castanopsis hystrix (CH), Michelia macclurei (MM), and Mytilaria laosensis (ML). We found that SOC stock differed significantly among the four plantations in the upper (0–10 cm) layer, but not in the underneath (10–30 cm) layer. SOC stocks in the upper (0–10 cm) layer were 11, 19, and 18% higher in the CH, MM, and ML plantations than in the PM plantation. The differences in SOC stock among the four plantations were largely attributed to fine root rather than aboveground litterfall input. However, the soils in the broadleaf plantations contained more decomposable C proportion, indicated by lower percentage of alkyl C, higher percentage of O-alkyl C and lower alkyl C/O-alkyl C ratio compared to those in the PM plantation. Our findings highlight that future strategy of tree species selection for substituting in place of large coniferous plantations in subtropical China needs to consider the potential effects of tree species on the chemical composition in addition to the quantity of SOC stock.     

不同密度杉木林对林下植被和土壤微生物群落结构的影响

为揭示土壤养分和细菌群落对林下植被调控的响应机制, 调查了浙江开化3种林分密度(高密度(KH)、中密度(KM)和低密度(KL))的17年生杉木人工林林下植被和生物量, 测定土壤理化性质, 并基于16S rDNA高通量测序技术分析细菌群落结构变化。结果表明, 3种密度的杉木林下植被地上部分总生物量为0.10-2.10 t·hm^-2, 且优势植物物种差异显著。理化性质测定分析发现, 高密度与低密度林分的土壤pH、有效磷含量差异显著。相关性分析表明, 土壤pH与林下植被中草本、灌木生物量及总生物量均呈显著正相关关系, 土壤有机质含量与灌木植被生物量及林下植被总生物量呈显著正相关关系, 速效钾含量与灌木植被生物量呈显著正相关关系。土壤微生物群落结构分析可知, 3种密度杉木林地土壤中酸杆菌门、变形菌门、放线菌门和绿弯菌门为优势菌群, 总相对丰度占比超过80%。冗余分析(RDA)表明土壤pH、碱解氮、有效磷和速效钾含量是土壤细菌群落结构变化的关键影响因素。酸杆菌门的优势亚群为Gp2、Gp1、Gp3和Gp6, 占酸杆菌群的51.32%-57.38%, 且随林分密度降低, 林下植被增多, Gp1占比增大, Gp2和Gp6占比下降; Gp6相对丰度与pH呈极显著负相关关系。可见, 杉木纯林经营中适度降低林分密度有利于林下植被生长和良好细菌群落结构保持, 有利于维持杉木林地土壤肥力, 实现可持续经营。     

Biomass and distribution of fine and coarse roots from blue oak (Quercus douglasii) trees in the northern Sierra Nevada foothills of California

This research adds to the limited data on coarse and fine root biomass for blue oak (Quercus douglasii Hook and Arn.), a California deciduous oak species found extensively throughout the interior foothills surrounding the Central Valley. Root systems of six blue oak trees were analyzed using three methods — backhoe excavation, quantitative pits, and soil cores. Coarse root biomass ranged from 7 to 177 kg per tree. Rooting depth for the main root system ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 m, with an average of 70% of excavated root biomass located above 0.5 m. Of the total biomass in excavated central root systems, primary roots (including burls) accounted for 56% and large lateral roots (> 20 mm diameter) accounted for 36%. Data from cores indicated that most biomass outside of the root crown was located in fine roots and that fine root biomass decreased with depth. At surface depths (0–20 cm), small-fine (< 0.5 mm diameter) roots accounted for 71%, large-fine (0.5–2.0 mm) for 25%, and coarse (> 2 mm) for 4% of total root biomass collected with cores. Mean fine root biomass density in the top 50 cm was 0.43 kg m⁻³. Fine root biomass did not change with increasing distance from the trees (up to approximately 5 m). Thus, fine roots were not concentrated under the tree canopies. Our results emphasize the importance of the smallest size class of roots (<0.5 mm), which had both higher N concentration and, in the area outside the central root system, greater biomass than large fine (0.5–2.0 mm) or coarse (> 2.0 mm) roots. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Effects of Single Chinese Fir and Mixed Leaf Litters on Soil Chemical, Microbial Properties and Soil Enzyme Activities

The quality of leaf litter can control decomposition processes and affect the nutrient availability for plant uptake. In this study, we investigated the effect of single leaf litter (Chinese fir – Cunninghamia lamcealata (Lamb.) Hook) and mixed leaf litters (C. lamcealata, Liquidamba formosana Hance and Alnus cremastogyne Burk) on soil chemical properties, soil microbial properties and soil enzyme activities during 2 years decomposition. The results showed that soil microbial biomass C, the ratio of soil microbial biomass C to total soil organic C (soil microbial quotient, Cmic/Corg) and soil enzymes (urease, invertase, dehydrogenase) activities increased significantly in mixed leaf litters treatments whereas soil chemical properties remained unchanged. However, soil microbial metabolic quotient (qCO₂) values and soil polyphenol oxidase activity were higher in the single Chinese fir leaf litter treatment that had a higher C:N (carbon:nitrogen) ratio (79.53) compared with the mixed leaf litter (C:N ratios of 76.32, 56.90, 61.20, respectively). Our results demonstrated that the mixed leaf litter can improve forest soil quality, and that soil microbial properties and soil enzyme activities are more sensitive in response to litter quality change than soil chemical properties.     

Relationships Between Soil Microorganisms, Plant Communities, and Soil Characteristics in Chinese Subtropical Forests

We analyzed the influence of above- and belowground factors on the soil microbial community in a Chinese subtropical forest, one of the most diverse biomes in the northern hemisphere. Soil samples were taken at different depths from four replicate comparative study plots in each of three forest age classes (young 10–40?years, medium 40–80?years, old ≥80?years). Microbial biomass and community structure were then determined using phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis, and basal respiration and microbial biomass carbon (C_mic) were determined by substrate-induced respiration. These data were then related to plant community and soil variables using non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis and post-hoc permutational correlations. We found that microbial lipid composition and abundance were not related to forest age class. Instead, microbial lipid composition and abundance were related to factors reflecting primary production, i.e., percent litter cover, percent dead wood cover, and percent tree layer cover. Specifically, the relative abundance (mol fraction) of indicators for arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria were positively significantly correlated with percent litter cover. We also found that the biomass of all microbial groups and total PLFA were negatively significantly related to percent deadwood cover. In addition, $ {\text{pH}}_{{{\text{H}}_{ 2} {\text{O}}}} $ was the only soil parameter that was correlated significantly to microbial biomass. Our results indicate that overarching ecological factors such as plant productivity and soil pH are important factors influencing the soil microbial community, both in terms of biomass and of community composition in this subtropical ecosystem.