A comparative analysis of wild and laboratory grown Laminaria abyssalis (Phaeophyta) using modulated fluorescence

Laminaria abyssalis fronds were either collected at the Brazilian costal area - 40 meters below sea level - or grown in the laboratory. The photochemical yield as defined by the Fv/Fm and the Fo - the dark fluorescence level when all PSII centers are open - varied with the distance from the stipe to the tip of the blade in wild grown fronds while it stayed constant in the laboratory grown plants. The chlorophyll a/c ratio levels decreased in the wild fronds from 12 (near the stipe) to 6 near the top. The chlorophyll c content increased from 0.8 to near 1.7 mg cm^–2 in the wild fronds. The laboratory fronds did not show variations in their chlorophyll contents. The wild fronds pattern changed after 2 months kept in the laboratory, producing similar results to those grown in the laboratory. The results indicate that the levels of the antenna complex in the wild fronds increase from the stipe to the top of the blade, in a fashion similar of the sun/shade leaves. Also, results show, that this alga is able to adapt itself to new light conditions, possibly increasing its level of antenna complex and photosynthetic units.Abbreviations PSII Photosystem II - Fo Chlorophyll fluorescence when all PSII are opened - Fm Chlorophyll Fluorescence when all PSII are closed - Fv Variable Fluorescence (Fm-Fo) - Fv/Fm Quantum Yield for Photochemistry     

Arsenic hyperaccumulation and localization in the pinnule and stipe tissues of the gold-dust fern (Pityrogramma calomelanos (L.) Link var. austroamericana (Domin) Farw.) using quantitative micro-PIXE spectroscopy

Spatial distribution patterns of arsenic (As) in the tissues of a lesser-known As hyperaccumulating fern Pityrogramma calomelanos (L.) Link var. austroamericana (Domin) Farw. (Pteridaceae) have been studied. Quantitative micro-proton-induced X-ray emission (micro-PIXE) spectroscopy was employed to examine As localization in pinnule and stipe cross-sections of this species. In addition, As hyperaccumulation status of P. calomelanos var. austroamericana was compared with the well-known As hyperaccumulating fern Pteris vittata L. Both species were grown in pots under controlled conditions and exposed to four levels of As (0–500 mg As kg⁻¹) for 20 weeks. Pityrogramma calomelanos var. austroamericana accumulated up to 16 415 mg As kg⁻¹ dry weight (DW), however, phytotoxicity symptoms such as necrotic pinnule tips and margins, appeared in fronds with concentrations >3,008 mg As kg⁻¹ DW. Arsenic was readily translocated to fronds, with concentrations up to 75 times greater in fronds than in roots. Quantitative elemental maps of As generated using micro-PIXE analysis revealed that As concentrations in pinnule cross-sections were higher than in stipe cross-sections with concentrations of 3.7 × 10³ and 1.6 × 10³ mg As kg⁻¹ DW, respectively (as determined by region selection analysis; RSA). In pinnules, RSA revealed variable concentrations of As, however did not resolve a clear pattern of compartmentalization across different anatomical regions. In stipe tissues, As concentrations followed the order vascular bundle > cortex > epidermis (as determined by RSA). Our results show that P. calomelanos var. austroamericana is an As hyperaccumulator and has the potential for use in phytoremediation of soils with low levels (up to 50 mg kg⁻¹) of As contamination.     

Parasitism as a biological control agent of dinoflagellate blooms in the California Current System

Amoebophrya is a marine parasite recently found to infect and kill bloom-forming dinoflagellates in the California Current System (CCS). However, it is unknown whether parasitism by Amoebophrya can control dinoflagellate blooms in major eastern boundary upwelling systems, such as the CCS. We quantified the abundance of a common bloom-forming species Akashiwo sanguinea and prevalence of its parasite (i.e., % infected cells) in surface water samples collected weekly from August 2005 to December 2008 at the Santa Cruz Wharf (SCW), Monterey Bay, CA. Additionally, we measured physical and chemical properties at the SCW and examined regional patterns of wind forcing and sea surface temperature. Relative abundance of the net phytoplankton species was also analyzed to discern whether or not parasitism influences net phytoplankton community composition. Epidemic infection outbreaks (>20% parasite prevalence in the host species) may have contributed to the end or prevented the occurrence of A. sanguinea blooms, whereas low parasite prevalence was associated with short-term (≤2 weeks) A. sanguinea blooms. The complete absence of parasitism in 2007 was associated with an extreme A. sanguinea bloom. Anomalously strong upwelling conditions were detected in 2007, suggesting that A. sanguinea was able to outgrow Amoebophrya and ‘escape’ parasitism. We conclude that parasitism can strongly influence dinoflagellate bloom dynamics in upwelling systems. Moreover, Amoebophrya may indirectly influence net phytoplankton species composition, as species that dominated the net phytoplankton and developed algal blooms never appeared to be infected.     

Growth and survival rates of large-type sporophytes of Ecklonia cava transplanted to a growth environment with small-type sporophytes

Stipe lengths of sporophytes of Ecklonia cava Kjellman have been reported to be longer along the southeast than southwest coast of the Izu Peninsula, central Japan. Two bays in this region that have natural populations of E. cava, but with different stipe lengths, were chosen for transplant experiments to examine if stipe length was an environmentally controlled trait. Transplant experiments were carried out in order to determine whether large-type sporophytes of E. cava with long stipes growing in Nabeta Bay (southeast Izu Peninsula, Japan) would turn into small-type sporophytes with short stipes when transplanted to Nakagi Bay (southwest Izu Peninsula). Ten juvenile sporophytes of E. cava (stipe length < 5 cm) were collected from Nabeta Bay (large-type habitat) and transplanted to Nakagi Bay (short-type habitat) in December 1995. As a transplant control, ten juvenile sporophytes of E. cava growing in Nakagi Bay were also transplanted to the same artificial reefs. Growth and survival rates of the sporophytes were monitored monthly for 3 y until December 1998. The transplanted sporophytes showed an increase in their stipe length and diameter from winter to spring, whereas almost no increase was observed from summer to autumn. However, the elongation was greater in Nabeta sporophytes than in Nakagi sporophytes. The primary blade length increased mainly from winter to early spring and decreased largely in autumn. Average primary blade lengths were similar in both Nabeta and Nakagi sporophytes from the end of the first year of transplanting. Although ca. 70% of both Nabeta and Nakagi sporophytes survived during the first 2 y after transplantation, no Nakagi sporophytes and only two Nabeta sporophytes survived to the end of the 3 y study period. Despite transplantation to Nakagi Bay, where short sitpes are naturally present, the sporophytes from Nabeta Bay persisted in having longer stipes, which suggests that stipe length is genetically, rather than environmentally, controlled.     

An unusual bloom of the dinoflagellate Akashiwo sanguinea off the central Oregon, USA, coast in autumn 2009

An algal bloom caused by the dinoflagellate Akashiwo sanguinea was observed in October–November 2009 along the central Oregon coast (44.6°N), off Newport, Oregon, U.S.A. In this paper, the conditions are described which led to the development and demise of this bloom. The bloom was observed for 1 month from 5-October until 4-November with the peak of abundance on 19-October (347,615 cells L⁻¹). The A. sanguinea bloom followed September blooms of the diatoms Pseudo-nitzschia spp, Chaetoceros debilis, and the dinoflagellate Prorocentrum gracile. The bloom occurred when nitrate and silicate concentrations were <2 μM and <8 μM, respectively, and when the water column was stratified. This A. sanguinea dinoflagellate bloom event was closely related to the anomalous upwelling conditions in 2009: upwelling ceased early, at the end of August, whereas a normal upwelling continues into early October. This relaxation extended to near the end of September as a prolonged downwelling event, but then active upwelling reappeared in October and November. The explanation for the occurrence of the A. sanguinea bloom in October may be related to a combination of a prior diatom bloom, a stratified water column with low nutrient concentration in September, and an active upwelling event in October. As for the ultimate source of the cells, the hypothesis is that the seed stock for the A sanguinea bloom off Oregon was southward transport of cells from the Washington coast where a massive bloom of A. sanguinea was first observed in September 2009.     

Regeneration from callus of Undaria pinnatifida (Harvey) Suringar (Laminariales,Phaeophyta)

Calli were formed on the explants of midrib, meristem and immature stipe parts from freshly collected Undaria pinnatifida sporophytes. Each part was sterilized by Betadine and ethanol, and was cut into explants. The explants were incubated on an agar medium at 10 hours light and 14 hours dark photoperiod under a photon flux density of 80 µmol m^–2 s^–1. Callus was formed best on the explants of meristem parts at a temperature of 13 °C on PESI medium. Calli were cut off from the explants and were transferred into a sterile liquid PESI medium in flasks. Callus was dark brown in colour and was composed of well-pigmented cells. The cells were loosely bound and were separated by low power sonication, and were easy to attach to vinylon strings. From the calli formed on the explants of meristem parts, entire fronds were regenerated, but from the calli formed on the explants of midrib parts, only thin layered laminae were regenerated. The calli formed on the explants of immature stipe parts did not exhibit any regeneration at all.     

Isolated, distal blade discs of the brown alga Laminaria digitata form sorus, but not discs, near to the meristematic transition zone

Blade discs of vegetative thalli of Laminaria digitata (Huds.) Lamour. from Helgoland (North Sea) cut at 5–15 cm distance from the blade/stipe transition, formed sorus in the laboratory after 7–12weeks, 5 months earlier than whole fronds in the field. Sorus formation occurred in a broad range of daylength regimes or temperatures, at 8–16 h light pe rday and 6–12 ^°C. No sorus was developed during three months by meristematic blade discs cut from the lowermost 3 cm portion of the blade, nor from whole thalli cultured in parallel to isolated blade discs. These findings point to the possible existence of sporulation inhibitors produced by the laminarian meristem. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Discomycetes on decayed tree fern. (3) Lachnum lanariceps and Lachnum oncospermatum new to Japan

Two species were newly identified in Japan. Lachnum lanariceps was characterized by a central and cylindrical stipe and hairs containing pale yellow pigment with red or garnet resinous matter. Lachnum oncospermatum was identified after comparison with the holotype of Dasyscyphus oncospermatis. This fungus has the characteristics of wrinkled apothecium and branched stipe.     

Seasonal and interannual variation of sterols in macrophytes from the Pacific coast of Baja California Peninsula (Mexico)

The seasonal and interannual proximate and sterol composition were assessed in two red (Gelidium robustum, Gelidiaceae and Gracilariopsis sjoestedtii, Gracilariaceae), two brown (Ecklonia arborea, Lessoniaceae and Macrocystis pyrifera, Laminariaceae), and two green (Ulva lactuca and Ulva clathrata, Ulvaceae) macroalgae species and the seagrass Phyllospadix torreyi (Zosteraceae) sampled over 3 years in a subtropical climate in Baja California Sur, Mexico. Each macroalga had a particular sterol composition that was typical of their taxonomic group. The red algae had cholesterol as the major sterol; 92% on average in G. robustum and 90% in G. sjoestedtii, followed by t‐dehydrosterol and brassicasterol. In the brown algae the major sterol was fucosterol, which accounted for approx. 90% and 92% of total sterols for M. pyrifera and E. arborea, respectively, followed by campesterol (7% and 5%) and isofucosterol (1.5% and 1.3%). The green algae had isofucosterol as the major sterol, with 92% on average for U. lactuca and 87% for U. clathrata, followed by cholesterol, fucosterol, and brassicasterol or norcholesterol. The seagrass P. torreyi had β‐sitosterol as the major sterol (39 to 89%, depending on the season), followed by campesterol (4 to 7%), stigmasterol (3 to 6%), and isofucosterol (1.7 to 3.5%). Four (cholesterol, campesterol, fucosterol, and isofucosterol) of the 14 sterols identified in macroalgae and the seagrass could be used to differentiate between classes (Florideophyceae – red, Phaeophyceae – brown, Ulvophyceae – green, and Monocots – seagrass) both seasonally and interannually. The seasonal and interannual sterol composition of macroalgae and seagrass was quite stable, with the exception of red G. sjoestedtii sampled in August and green macroalga U. lactuca and seagrass P. torreyi both sampled in May 2002. Seasonal and interannual variations of proximate and sterol composition are discussed in relation to their reproductive state and environmental parameters.     

Phenology and photosynthetic activity in sterile and fertile sporophytes of Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott

Summary This study describes the phenology of sporophytes of the fern Dryopteris filix-mas in relation to whole plant development. Sterile and fertile potted sporophytes were set out at an exposed site and the seasonal development of the fronds was measured from the commencement of unfolding, through the phase of increasing length, up to discoloration. The physiological activity of the fronds was determined by measuring photosynthetic gas exchange. The fronds of sterile sporophytes unfolded in April, about a week earlier than those of fertile plants, but the colour had already begun to turn in September and their life span was 1–2 months shorter. However, between mid-June and the end of August the sterile sporophytes put out several sets of new fronds: these overwintered without changing color and were still photosynthetically active in the following spring. All types of fronds were fully expanded 1–2 months from the beginning of unfolding and, with a natural supply of CO₂, had similar maximum net photosynthetic rates of 8–9 mol/m² · s. The decline in photosynthetic performance began before symptoms of senescence were visible and was due to decreased efficiency of the mesophyll. It is concluded that the phenology of D. filix-mas changes with transition from the sterile to the fertile phase. Whereas fertile sporophytes are genuinely summergreen, the sterile sporophytes with their summer fronds remain green throughout the winter and should therefore be termed semi-evergreen. The formation of overwintering summer shoots clearly extends the period of photosynthetic productivity of sterile sporophytes.     

Efficient 5' ETS walking from conserved 18S rDNA sequences of the dinoflagellates <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alexandrium</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Akashiwo sanguinea</Emphasis> (Dinophyceae)

An external transcribed spacer (ETS) walking PCR technique was developed for the isolation of unknown sequences adjacent to the 18S rDNA. This strategy relied on four "walking primers", which were designed to bind unknown sequences upstream from the 18S rDNA, and a specially programmed series of thermocycles. This method was successful in the isolation of the 5' ETS regions from harmful dinoflagellates, including Alexandrium affine, A. catenella, A. minutum, A. tamarense, and Akashiwo sanguinea. Mono-directional sequencing reactions revealed the PCR products to be 392–962 nucleotides in length, and the 5' ETS in these products were longer than 362 bp. These are the first such sequences available for A. sanguinea and the Alexandrium. In comparisons of the ETS sequences, genetic distance was considerably high within the Alexandrium. Furthermore, the sequences were significantly variable among the different strains of identical species: genetic distance was recorded at 0.0420 for A. tamarense strains and as less than 0.7841 within strains of A. sanguinea. The 5'-start nucleotide of 18S rDNA was variable between the two genera: the five species of Alexandrium contained a T base, and A. sanguinea contained an A base. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of the ETS walking PCR method. This method will be valuable in directional ETS walking from known regions to unknown regions, particularly concerning the boundary sequences of rRNA genes.     

Scaling of Frond Form in Hawaiian Tree Fern Cibotium glaucum: Compliance with Global Trends and Application for Field Estimation

Large‐fronded tree ferns are critical components of many tropical forests. We investigated frond and whole‐plant allometries for Hawaiian keystone species Cibotium glaucum, for prediction and to compare with global scaling relationships. We found that C. glaucum fronds maintain geometric proportionality across a wide range of plant and frond sizes. These relationships result in strong allometries that permit rapid field estimation of frond size from simple linear dimensions. C. glaucum frond allometries complied with intra‐ and interspecific global trends for leaf area versus mass established for much smaller‐leafed species, indicating ‘diminishing returns’ in photosynthetic area per investment in mass for larger fronds. The intraspecific trend was related to declining water content in larger fronds, but not to a significantly larger investment in stipe or rachis relative to lamina. However, C. glaucum complied with the global interspecific trends for greater allocation to support structures in larger leaves. Allometries for frond number and size versus plant height showed that as plants increase in height, frond production and/or retention progressively declines, and the increases of leaf size tend to level off. These frond and whole plant‐level relationships indicate the potential for estimating frond area and mass at landscape scale to enrich studies of forest dynamics.     

Use of odours by Cycloneda sanguinea to assess patch quality

Adult ladybirds are likely to encounter various species of prey when foraging for oviposition sites. Optimal oviposition theory predicts that females should lay eggs in those sites that are the most suitable for offspring development. Therefore, factors that directly affect offspring mortality, such as the presence of predators and food, are expected to play an important role in the assessment of patch profitability by ladybird predators. Using a Y‐tube olfactometer, we tested whether the predatory ladybird Cycloneda sanguinea L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) can use volatile cues to assess patch profitability and avoid predator‐rich patches. We assessed the foraging behaviour of C. sanguinea in response to odours associated with tomato plants infested with a superior prey, Macrosiphum euphorbiae Thomas (Homoptera: Aphididae), and with an inferior prey, Tetranychus evansi Baker and Pritchard (Acari: Tetranychidae), in the presence or absence of the heterospecific predator Eriopis connexa Mulsant (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Females of C. sanguinea significantly preferred plants infested by M. euphorbiae to plants infested by T. evansi and avoided odours emanating from plants on which E. connexa females were present. Our results show that C. sanguinea use volatile cues to assess patch profitability and to avoid patches with heterospecific competitors or intraguild predators.     

Frond elongation rates of shallow waterMacrocystis pyrifera (L.) Ag. In northern Baja California,Mexico

Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) Ag.frond elongation rates were measured during autumn-winter, spring and summer in a shallow water (7.5 m depth) kelp bed in Bahía Papalote, northern Baja California. Frond elongation was maximum during spring and minimum during winter. Frond growth was significantly correlated with solar radiation, and was highest in the smallest size fronds (0–2 m). Average frond elongation rate varied between 0.3–11% d^–1 during the study period. The relationship between average frond length and elongation rate followed an exponential curve with a negative slope during autumn-winter and summer, but was best described by a straight line during spring. Standard growth rates were obtained by a graphic method. Standard growth rates had intermediate values between those reported for southern California and southern Baja California.M. pyrifera growth cycle shows a different trend from what has been previously reported.     

Ecological effects of harvesting Lessonia (Laminariales,Phaeophyta) in central Chile

Lessonia nigrescens and L. trabeculata are economically important canopy-forming kelps in Chile. Experimental harvesting of stipes above the first dichotomy reduces stipe movement and inter-stipe friction, allowing the development of a heavy epiphytic load and increased grazing. Complete stipe removal leads to holdfast death as neither species is able to simultaneously regenerate all stipes. The invertebrate fauna inside the holdfast does not respond to upper canopy changes, but mortality does occur in partial or complete plant removals. Kelp removal also affects inter-plant distances, results in increased access of grazers to the outside and inside of kelp holdfasts, reduces recruitment of other algal species, and modifies the morphology of L. trabeculata such that the plants become more susceptible to removal by water movement.     

Overexpression of CYP710A1 and CYP710A4 in transgenic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis</Emphasis> plants increases the level of stigmasterol at the expense of sitosterol

Sitosterol and stigmasterol are major sterols in vascular plants. An altered stigmasterol:sitosterol ratio has been proposed to influence the properties of cell membranes, particularly in relation to various stresses, but biosynthesis of stigmasterol is poorly understood. Recently, however, Morikawa et al. (Plant Cell 18:1008–1022, 2006) showed in Arabidopsis thaliana that synthesis of stigmasterol and brassicasterol is catalyzed by two separate sterol C-22 desaturases, encoded by the genes CYP710A1 and CYP710A2, respectively. The proteins belong to a small cytochrome P450 subfamily having four members, denoted by CYP710A1-A4, and are related to the yeast sterol C-22 desaturase Erg5p acting in ergosterol synthesis. Here, we report on our parallel investigation of the Arabidopsis CYP710A family. To elucidate the function of CYP710A proteins, transgenic Arabidopsis plants were generated overexpressing CYP710A1 and CYP710A4. Compared to wild-type plants, both types of transformant displayed a normal phenotype, but contained increased levels of free stigmasterol and a concomitant decrease in the level of free sitosterol. CYP710A1 transformants also displayed higher levels of esterified forms of stigmasterol, cholesterol, 24-methylcholesterol and isofucosterol. The results confirm the findings of Morikawa et al. (Plant Cell 18:1008–1022, 2006) regarding the function of CYP710A1 in stigmasterol synthesis, and show that CYP710A4 also has this capacity. Furthermore, our results suggest that an increased stigmasterol level alone is sufficient to stimulate esterification of other major sterols.     

Reiterative growth in the complex adaptive architecture of the Paleozoic (Pennsylvanian) filicalean fern Kaplanopteris clavata

Reiteration is a widespread component of plant growth whose evolutionary importance in ferns is not recognized widely. We introduce and discuss the growth architecture of Kaplanopteris clavata, a fossil filicalean fern from the Pennsylvanian (ca. 305 million yeas old), focusing on types of reiteration exhibited by this species and on the adaptive and phylogenetic significance of reiteration for ferns in general. Kaplanopteris clavata combines two types of reiterative growth where growth modules are borne on fronds: (1) entire fronds derived from primary pinnae, and (2) epiphyllous plantlets. This combination of reiterative pathways, unique among fossil and living ferns, allowed K. clavata to explore ecospace through an opportunistic combination of scrambling, climbing and epiphytic growth. Kaplanopteris clavata underscores the organographic importance of fronds (as opposed to stems) in the adaptive architecture of ferns, emphasizing functional convergences between the different Baupla̋ne of ferns and angiosperms. This unique combination of reiterative pathways is interpreted as a derived condition illustrating the structural and developmental complexity achieved by some filicaleans during the first major evolutionary radiation of leptosporangiate ferns.     

Non-timber forest product harvesting in alien-dominated forests: effects of frond-harvest and rainfall on the demography of two native Hawaiian ferns

Non-timber forest products (NTFP) represent culturally and economically important resources for millions of people worldwide. Although many NTFP are harvested from disturbed habitats and therefore subject to multiple pressures, few quantitative studies have addressed this issue. Similarly few NTFP studies have assessed seasonal variation in demographic rates even though this can confound harvest effects. In Hawaiȁ8i, the wild-gathered ferns, Microlepia strigosa and Sphenomeris chinensis, represent highly important cultural resources but declining populations have led to conservation concerns. Both ferns are harvested from disturbed, alien-dominated forests and contemporary Hawaiian gathering practices often consist of harvest and concurrent weeding of alien invasive species. We assessed the effects of concurrent frond-harvest and alien species weeding on frond structure, density, and rates of production by comparing experimentally harvested vs. control plots, and documented relationships between frond demographic patterns and precipitation. Gathering practices had no impact on frond density of either species or on most other demographic parameters over the short term. Exceptions included a significant decrease in the density of the longest S. chinensis fronds and a significant decrease in M. strigosa frond production when fronds were gathered without alien weeding. However, seasonal and annual changes in frond density and production occurred across all plots of both species and were significantly correlated with precipitation. The relatively low harvest effects for both species are likely due to several factors including short frond longevity and the strict criteria used by gatherers to select harvestable fronds. The potential for sustainable harvest in the context of alien-dominated forests is discussed.     

Influence of light on the morphological changes that take place during the development of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Flammulina velutipes</Emphasis> fruit body

We show that fruit bodies of Flammulina velutipes can be induced in complete darkness after a sharp temperature reduction (23° to 16°C). However, the fruit bodies that form in complete darkness have a long stipe with an undeveloped pileus on the top (pinhead fruit bodies) and are thinner and whiter than the normal fruit bodies which are formed in the light. This finding suggests that F. velutipes fruit bodies cannot mature in complete darkness. However, when we irradiated the fruit bodies that had formed in complete darkness, a pileus developed immediately, and 4 days later the separation between the stipe and the pileus could be observed. Immediately after light exposure, the stipe also thickened and became increasingly pigmented. The stipe elongation was inhibited until 8 days after light exposure, although stipe elongation progressed very quickly thereafter. Basidospores were also visible in the gills 8 days after light exposure. We consider that the basidiospore development is involved in this rapid stipe elongation, which aids the effective dispersal of basidiospores.     

Characterization of ornamental Datura plants transformed by Agrobacterium rhizogenes

Summary Datura arborea and D. sanguinea hairy roots were produced by cocultivation of leaf fragments with Agrobacterium rhizogenes strain NCPP 1855. Adventitious buds emerged spontaneously, without exogenous growth regulators, from seven hairy root clones of D. arborea and from one hairy root clone of D. sanguinea. Regenerated plants were successfully acclimatized in the greenhouse. The integration of the bacterial TL-DNA into the genome of the putative transformed plants was confirmed by Southern blot analysis. Transgenic plants displayed increased ability to root in vivo. Morphological traits with relevant ornamental value like plant height, leaf number, size and shape, internode number, and internode length were also affected. Transformation by wild-type Ri TL-DNA provided the chance to study plant growth and differentiation and to select improved genotypes.