Fungus gardens of the leafcutter ant Atta colombica function as egg nurseries for the snake Leptodeira annulata

Attine ants are well known for their mutualistic symbiosis with fungus gardens, but many other symbionts and commensals have been described. Here, we report the discovery of two clusters of large snake eggs in neighboring fungus gardens of a mature Atta colombica colony. The eggs were completely embedded within the fungus garden and were ignored by the host ants, even when we placed them into another, freshly excavated fungus garden of the same colony. All five eggs contained embryos and two snakes eventually hatched, which we identified as being banded cat eyed snakes Leptodeira annulata L. Ant fungus gardens are likely to provide ideal climatic conditions for developing snake eggs and almost complete protection from egg predation. Our observations therefore indicate that mature banded cat eyed snakes are able to enter and oviposit in large and well defended Atta colonies without being attacked by ant soldiers and that also newly hatched snakes manage to avoid ant attacks when they leaving their host colony. We speculate that L. annulata might use Atta and Acromyrmex leafcutter ant colonies as egg nurseries by some form of chemical insignificance, but more work is needed to understand the details of this interaction. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Effect of dikegulac on growth and alkaloid production inCatharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. (pink flowered)

Application of sodium-dikegulac reduced plant height with associated increase in branch and leaf number and root biomass inC. roseus (L.) G. DON. Chlorophyll content reduced significantly after first month of 100 and 250 μg/ml DK application. However, such reduction was replaced by significant rise after forth month in 250 μg/ml DK application and fifth month in 100 μg/ml DK application followed by appreciable decline only in 250 μg/ml DK treatment but 100 μg/ml DK maintained higher level till harvest. Total sugar content was significantly high during forth and fifth month stage of growth after DK application. Amino acid content was higher during third to fifth month in 100 μg/ml DK treatment and during third to forth month in 250 μg/ml DK treatment. Tryptophan, on the other hand showed higher content at the fifth month stage of growth after application of DK in both the concentrations. Leaf and root dry weight as well as total alkaloid content were highest in 100 μg/ml DK application. DK, therefore, appears to be a potential chemical for increasing biomass and alkaloid content inC. roseus.     

Non-seasonal breeding pattterns in stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides)

This paper summarizes published reports of breeding patterns across the genusMacaca. Patterns range from strictly seasonal to non-seasonal. Data on sexual behavior and birth patterns are presented which confirm previous reports of non-seasonality forMacaca arctoides. In a captive colony, 63 births were recorded, and individuals were born during every month of the year. Heterosexual mounting activity was recorded over a two-year period and occurred during every month of that period. It is clear thatM. arctoides does not exhibit the seasonal cyclicity observed in some other macaque species.     

Asiaticoside production from centella (Centella asiatica L. Urban) cell culture

Petiole explants of centella plants (Centella asiatica L. Urban) were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) solid medium containing 20 g/L sucrose, supplemented with 1.0 mg/L benzylaminopurine and 1.0 mg/L naphthaleneacetic acid for callus production. To establish a cell suspension culture, 2 g of fresh callus was cultured in 50 mL of the same medium but without solid agent at a 100 rpm agitation speed. Every 2 g of culture was subcultured in fresh MS liquid medium for maintenance. After 24 days of culture at a 120 rpm agitation speed, the centella cell biomass reached a maximum of 9.03 g/50 mL on the same MS medium with 30 g/L sucrose and a 3 g inoculum size. A high performance liquid chromatography analysis showed that asiaticoside content in 24-day old suspension cultured cells (45.35 mg/g dry weight) was significantly higher (4.5 fold) than that of in planta leaves (10.55 mg/g dry weight).     

The effects of cadmium and mercury on gemmule formation and gemmosclere morphology in Ephydatia fluviatilis (Porifera : Spongillidae)

A laboratory study of the effects of cadmium and mercury on the freshwater sponge, Ephydatia fluviatilis, was conducted. Sponge cuttings were exposed to concentrations of cadmium or mercury which ranged from 1.000 to 0.001 ppm for one month. The responses exhibited by the specimens resulted in four groups characterized as follows: sponge colony survived and produced gemmules with normal gemmoscleres; sponge colony survived and produced gemmules with malformed gemmoscleres; sponge colony survived but did not gemmulate; sponge colony died. A direct discriminant functions analysis of the four sponge groups, metal concentrations and other chemical data established a highly significant correlation between increasing metal concentrations and amount of damage to the sponge.     

红托竹荪菌种快速分离培养基优化

通过对红托竹荪快速分离培养基优化,提高红托竹荪菌种分离与评价效率。采用响应面分析法,以菌种生长速度为响应值拟合二次多元回归方程,确定培养基配方;测定优化培养基与PDA对照培养基菌丝生长速度和菌丝直径,以菌丝形态、锁状联合和菌落形态等指标评价优化培养基;测定优化培养基与PDA培养基培养菌丝在木屑培养基中菌丝生长速度,验证应用效果。通过试验,筛选出快速分离培养基配方为葡萄糖20.71 g/L、全麦粉8.36 g/L、玉米粉8.07 g/L、琼脂粉18.00 g/L、木屑水1.06 L。快速分离培养基与PDA培养基对比,培养的菌落直径平均增加66.25%,快速分离培养基菌丝日平均生长速度增加33.33%,木屑培养基菌丝日平均生长速度增加44.22%。由于优化培养基中含有淀粉、纤维素等有效成分,其刺激了菌种分泌淀粉酶、纤维素酶等,维持了胞外酶系的完整性。还可根据菌丝培养基过程形成的透明圈大小判定菌种胞外酶产生能力,达到快速评价菌种质量,保障菌种质量的目的。     

Formation of Mononuclear Phagocyte (Macrophage) Colonies by Mouse Spleen Cells in Liquid Culture

The effect of the capsular polysaccharide of Klebsiella pneumoniae type 1 Kasuya strain (CPS-K) on the formation of macrophage colonies in cultures of mouse spleen cells was investigated by the liquid culture technique during an incubation period of 7–8 days. CPS-K markedly inhibited further generation of macrophage colonies when added at any time after the beginning of culture, whereas it showed no destructive effect on macrophage colonies which were already formed before its addition. When CPS-K was present throughout the incubation period, such a low concentration as 0.05 μg/ml significantly inhibited colony formation, and the intensity of its inhibitory effect depended on its dose in the range of 0.005–50 μg/ml. The inhibitory effect persisted even if CPS-K was washed out after spleen cells were kept in contact with 20 μg of CPS-K per ml at 37 C for 6 hr. It was found that the inhibitory effect of CPS-K on colony formation was not mediated through its action on T cells, B cells or macrophages, and that it was not due to the generation of suppressor cells capable of inhibiting colony formation. It is concluded therefore that CPS-K directly inhibits the proliferation of macrophage colony-forming cells. The active substance responsible for the inhibitory effect of CPS-K on colony formation is the neutral polysaccharide fraction of CPS-K.     

Length–weight relationships of Dermogenys pusilla Kuhl & van Hasselt, 1823 (Zenarchopteridae) and Labeo bata (Hamilton, 1822) (Cyprinidae) from the Ganges River (NW Bangladesh)

Length‐weight relationships (LWRs) were determined for Dermogenys pusilla (n = 75) and Labeo bata (n = 304) from the Ganges River, northwestern Bangladesh, collected between July 2013 and June 2014, using traditional fishing gear (e.g. cast net, square lift net and gill net). Total length (TL) was measured to 0.1 cm and whole body weight (BW) was taken to the nearest 0.1 g for each individual. The TL varied from 6.60 to 16.10 cm for D. pusilla and 7.90–25.20 cm for L. bata. The BW ranged from 1.20 to 10.90 g for D. pusilla and 4.70–167.30 g for L. bata. All LWRs were highly significant (P < 0.001), with all r² values ≥0.976. Moreover, the present study provides a new record of the maximum length (16.10 cm TL) for the D. pusilla female. The present study can assist in the management of these two endangered species in the Ganges River ecosystem.     

Colony founding and social parasitism in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lasius</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Acanthomyops)</Emphasis>

We investigated colony foundation behavior of three species of the Lasius claviger group, L. latipes, L. interjectus and L. claviger, using field observations and laboratory experiments. Laboratory studies included observing gyne behavior prior to interaction with host colonies (e.g. grouping, overwintering, feeding) and experiments in which gynes were introduced to putative host colonies. Observations of gyne parasitic behavior immediately after mating flights in the field and the discovery of mixed colonies both confirm the parasitic behavior of these species and point toward a wide host species range including two cases of hyperparasitism. L. interjectus and L. latipes enter the host colony immediately after the nuptial flight, while L. claviger may hibernate and enter in the spring. Laboratory experiments showed that L. interjectus gynes prefer to group and suffer lower mortality when in a group, which is consistent with field observations of L. interjectus gynes entering host colonies in large numbers. Details on behavior of L. latipes alpha and beta form gynes are also given.     

Seasonal patterns of egg production in field colonies of the termite <Emphasis Type="Italic">Reticulitermes speratus</Emphasis> (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae)

This is the first report on the annual egg production patterns in mature termite colonies in the field. Data on the seasonal patterns of egg production in field colonies are very important for understanding the annual colony growth schedule, resource allocation, and population dynamics of the termites. However, collecting the eggs from a sufficient number of colonies is extremely difficult in Reticulitermes termites because their multiple-site nesting makes it difficult to find the reproductive center of the colonies. Here, we first show the seasonal pattern of egg production in the subterranean termite Reticulitermes speratus by collecting the reproductive center of ten colonies each month from April through October. We had to destructively examine dozens of nests to find eggs from enough field colonies each month. Mature field colonies began to produce eggs in late May, soon after the swarming season, and the egg production rate (EPR) reached its maximum in early July. The eggs hatched until late October. The EPR was significantly correlated with the average monthly temperature. Additional investigation of the egg distributions in the nests showed that most eggs were kept around the royal cell, which contained the reproductives. The largest colony had 109 supplemental queens and 94,023 eggs, suggesting that each queen produced an average of 24.7 eggs per day, based on the known mean hatching period of an inseminated egg of 34.95±0.12 (SE) days.     

Accumulation of sesquiterpenes and polysaccharides in cells of zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria Roscoe) cultured in a 10 L bioreactor

We developed a cell suspension culture system for zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria Roscoe), using 100 g fresh weight inoculum in a batch culture. The maximum cell biomass of 68.46 g/L fresh weight was obtained after 14 days of culture in a 10 L bioreactor with a pitch-blade impeller maintained at an agitation speed of 150 rpm and an aeration rate of 2.5 L/min. The accumulation of sesquiterpenes and polysaccharide in zedoary cells from 2 to 18 days was measured by HPLC and a phenol-sulfuric acid assay, respectively. The total polysaccharide concentration increased between 2 to 10 days of culture and reached a maximum value of 6.55%. HPLC revealed several eluted peaks of sesquiterpenes, which increased in amplitude from days 2 to 10. Furthermore, our results indicated that biotransformation occurred in the cell suspension, transforming certain sesquiterpenes into other types during culture.     

The Development of Obesity Begins at an Early Age in Captive Common Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus)

Animal models to study the causes and consequences of obesity during infancy in humans would be valuable. In this study, we examine the patterns of fat mass gain from birth to 12 months in common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Lean and fat mass was measured by quantitative magnetic resonance at 1, 2, 6, and 12 months for 31 marmosets, 15 considered Normal and 16 considered Fat (>14% body fat) at 12 months. Animals were fed either the regular colony diet mix or a high‐fat variation. Subjects classified as Fat at 12 months already had greater lean mass (198.4 ± 6.2 g vs. 174.0 ± 6.8 g, P = 0.013) and fat mass (45.5 ± 5.0 g vs. 24.9 ± 3.4 g, P = .002) by 6 months. Body mass did not differ between groups prior to 6 months, however, by 1 month, Fat infants had greater percent body fat. Percent body fat decreased between 1 and 12 months in Normal subjects; in Fat subjects, it increased. The high‐fat diet was associated with body fat >14% at 6 months (P = 0.049), but not at 12 months. This shift was due to three subjects on the normal diet changing from Normal to Fat between 6 and 12 months. Although maternal prepregnancy adiposity did not differ, overall, between Normal and Fat subjects, the subjects Normal at 6 and Fat at 12 months all had Fat mothers. Therefore, diet and maternal obesity appear to have potentially independent effects that may also vary with developmental age. Although birth weight did not differ between groups, it was associated with fat mass gain from 1 to 6 months in animals with >14% body fat at 6 months of age (r = 0.612, P = 0.026); but not in 6‐month‐old animals with <14% body fat (r = –0.012, P = 0.964). Excess adiposity in captive marmosets develops by 1 month. Birth weight is associated with adiposity in animals vulnerable to obesity.     

Effects of salinity and feeding on arm regeneration in the starfish Luidia clathrata (Say, 1825) (Echinodermata: Asteroidea)

The aim of this study was to determine: (1) salinity that maximizes arm regeneration in the starfish Luidia clathrata; and (2) if low food consumption or low salinity is the cause of the reduced rate of arm regeneration seen at low salinities.. An estimated salinity of 33 g kg^?1 produced maximum regeneration of two arms in L. clathrata. This salinity is typically greater than that found in bays that are the usual habitat for the species. Equivalent food consumption by L. clathrata in salinities of 20 g kg^?1 and 30 g kg^?1 resulted in greater regeneration in salinity of 30 g kg^?1, suggesting lower food consumption at low salinities is not the primary reason for lower regeneration. Higher food consumption compared to lower food consumption, both tested in salinity of 30 g kg^?1, did not increase regeneration, but resulted in more storage of energy in the pyloric caeca.     

Field experiments on colony foundation byLasius niger (L.) andL. flavus (F.) (Hym., Formicidae)

Summary Queens ofLasius flavus (F.) andL. niger (L.) were observed to choose sunlit bare areas for colony foundation and shading was found to reduce their success in founding colonies. Large colonies of these species killed queens of the opposite species first thus favouring the co-existence brought about by their habitat selection.     

Reproductive behavior of the territorial herbivoreStegastes nigricans (Pisces: Pomacentridae) in relation to colony formation

Reproductive behavior of the herbivorous damselfishStegastes nigricans was studied. Both males and females held individual feeding territories, which were distributed contiguously and formed colonies. Spawning season was from June to September. Females visited males' territories and spawned eggs on the algal nest. Males tended eggs until hatching but exhibited less care taking behavior than other damselfishes. The mating system was promiscuous in that both males and females spawn with several mates, even within a single day. However, only 1 female was accepted in the nest at a time. The restriction of the number of mates in the nest may be an adptation to prevent the sneaking which was often conducted by other males of the same colony, and may also be avoidance of disturbing the spawning female. Most spawnings were done among members of the same colony and inter-colonial spawnings were rare (27 cases of 333 spawnings observed). The results of this study suggest that colonial distribution ofS. nigricans may bring several benefits in reproduction to the colony members (e.g. easy mate findings within fellow colony members), but also seems to bring costs (e.g. restriction of number of mates).     

Endogenous synchronization of the chemical signature of Reticulitermes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) worker termites

Termites of the genus Reticulitermes are characteristic of temperate regions. Their colonies comprise various castes, the most numerous being that of workers which can develop into soldiers or secondary reproductives (neotenics). Each caste has a mixture of hydrocarbons (HCs) on the cuticle forming a chemical signature. The primary aim of this study was to compare the changes in the chemical signature of a population of worker termites fed on paper with juvenile hormone to differentiate them into soldiers with a control population of termites fed only on paper or wood for one month. Gas chromatography was used to analyze the cuticular profiles of Reticulitermes flavipes termites to determine whether they changed, and, if so, when and how. The data collected over one month showed that the workers fed with JH did not differentiate into soldiers but that there were progressive changes in the hydrocarbon profile independent of the treatment. These results indicate that the differentiation of the chemical signature of the worker caste is a dynamic process, depending only on time and not on colony membership, confirming that, for these termites, this signature has a lesser role in colony membership than caste membership, unlike the chemical signatures of other social insects. The temporal process of this cuticular change is also associated with a change in the alkene/methyl-branched alkane ratio.     

Flight Speed of Tethered Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) Alates

Alates of the Eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) were collected over two flight seasons (2002 and 2004) and flown on flight mills. Data were collected to test if alate mass, colony origin, or gender influenced flight speed. Flight speed ranged from 3.14 to 69.12 cm s⁻¹ and the maximum distance flown by an alate was 458.3 m. Alate mass (P = 0.9406), gender (P = 0.3976), colony origin (P = 0.1244), and the interaction of gender and colony (P = 0.7093) did not significantly influence flight speed. Additionally, an electronic counting device was used to provide instantaneous flight speeds and allowed flight speed to be modeled during acceleration, cruising, and deceleration periods of flight. Mean (±SEM) flight speeds in 2004 were 20.64 (±2.21) cm s⁻¹ (n = 13) for males and 17.76 cm s⁻¹ (n = 1) for the single female flown, falling within the range of the 2002 values.     

蓝桉凋落叶分解对菠菜生长及光合特性的影响

通过盆栽试验,模拟蓝桉(Eucalyptus globulus)凋落叶在土壤中分解对受体植物菠菜(Spinacia oleracea)生长及光合特性的影响,设置L30(30 g/盆)、L60(60 g/盆)、L90(90 g/盆)和L120(120 g/盆)4个凋落叶施用水平,对照(CK)不加凋落叶。结果表明:(1)在分解30 d时,低量的凋落叶(L30)未抑制菠菜生物量的积累,而中量和高量处理(L60、L90和L120)下其生物量显著降低(P0.05);在凋落叶分解50 d后,蓝桉凋落叶的化感抑制效应已经减弱,仅L120仍然抑制菠菜生物量的积累;(2)一定量的凋落叶(L30和L60)对菠菜叶绿素的合成有促进作用,而凋落叶超过一定量时(L120)转为抑制作用,在凋落叶分解28 d时相对不明显,40 d后逐渐显现;(3)经凋落叶处理的菠菜叶片胞间CO2浓度(Ci)、气孔导度(Gs)及蒸腾速率(Tr)均显著高于对照(CK)(P0.05),而净光合速率(Pn)在L30处理下最高,L60和L90处理与CK差异不显著,仅L120处理显著低于CK(P0.05);(4)光响应与CO2响应曲线的特征参数表观量子效率(AQY)、最大净光合速率(Pmax)、光饱和点(Lsp)、光补偿点(Lcp)、暗呼吸速率(Rd)、Ru BP表观羧化效率(CE)和光呼吸速率(Rp)在L30处理下高于CK,其余凋落叶处理均低于CK,而CO2饱和点(Csp)、CO2补偿点(Ccp)随凋落叶量的增加而升高。综合各指标可见,少量的蓝桉凋落叶分解(L30)可通过增加叶绿素含量,提高对光和CO2的利用能力促进菠菜的光合作用,进而促进其生长,而凋落叶超过一定量时(L90—L120)则起到相反的作用。     

Extraction of rapamycin (sirolimus) from Streptomyces rapamycinicus using ultrasound

The study was designed to investigate the use of ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of rapamycin (sirolimus) from bacterial strain of Streptomyces rapamycinicus NRRL 5491. To achieve the maximum extraction yield, various parameters were optimized which include S. rapamycinicus (10?g) of biomass in toluene (50?mL), temperature (20°C), acoustic intensity (35.67?W/cm²), and duty cycle (40%) for 4?min extraction time with probe tip length of 0.5?cm dipped into extraction solvent from the surface. The maximum extraction yield 60.15?±?0.01?mg/L was attained under the mentioned optimum parameters. The use of ultrasound for the extraction of rapamycin shows about twofold increase in the yield as compared to the conventional solid–liquid extraction (29.7?±?0.2?mg/L). The study provides the effective UAE technique to produce potential value-added products.     

Floral biology of the saguaro (Cereus giganteus)

A saguaro cactus (Cereus giganteus) produces an average of 295 flowers per season, each of which produces 286 mg fresh weight of pollen and 543 mg of nectar containing 24% sugar. At 7600 pollen grains/mg pollen, the yearly output per saguaro plant is 6.4×10⁸ grains. Based on the measured saguaro density of 6.56 plants/ha, 553 g/ha of pollen is produced yearly. The enormous variation among individual plants in terms of flower numbers and floral bloom patterns is documented.Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.), the main collectors of saguaro pollen, collect an average of 12.2 mg pollen per foraging trip and can thus harvest 23.5 pollen loads from one flower. An average honey bee colony collects 290 g of saguaro pollen over the season, which is 24.4% of their total intake. Individual colonies exhibit wide variation in pollen collecting activities with some closely tracking the pollen resource and others almost totally ignoring it. The average for seven colonies indicates that even though variation is great the overall trend is toward closely tracking and exploiting the saguaro pollen resource. Based on the pollen productivity of saguaro and a hypothetical 90% pollen harvesting efficiency of bees, the pollen harvest potential of the saguaro environment is 1.72 colony equivalents of pollen/ha and 0.5/ha for saguaro alone. This is the first quantitative reporting of the total pollen productivity and pollen resource utilization for any plant and an opportunistic pollinator.