蛇肌果糖-1,6-二磷酸酯酶的别构部位

比较蛇肌果糖1,6-二磷酸酯酶的别构抑制剂AMP和它的类似物对该酶的抑制作用的结果表引,5′-AMP的嘌呤环上6位氨基以及核糖上5′磷酸基团是抑制剂和别构部位结合所必需的。8-BrAMP和5′-AMP具有相似的抑制能力,表明嘌呤环上的咪唑部分对于AMP的抑制作用贡献不大。5′-d-AMP对蛇肌果糖1,6-二磷酸酯酶的抑制作用比较特殊,按照50%抑制该酶时的抑制剂浓度计算,得到的抑制常数为3×10~(-6)M,其数值和5′-AMP的抑制常数接近。但是当抑制剂浓度增大时所能达到的最大抑制程度只有60%左右。表明5′-dAMP和5′-AMP结合后,对果糖1,6-二磷酸酯酶的催化部位的影响不同,2′羟基和酶的结合可能和别构部位的信号传导到催化部位有关系。被水溶性羰二亚胺修饰的蛇肌果糖1,6-二磷酸酯酶受5′-AMP的抑制作用和5′-dAMP的抑制作用相似,推测这个传导变构部位的信息到催化部位去的基团有可能和羧基有关。     

抑制剂对于存在底物抑制的酶的作用——果糖-1,6-二磷酸酯酶的抑制动力学

果糖-1,6-二磷酸酯酶(EG.3.1.3.11,简称FruP_2ase)是糖的异生作用过程中一个重要的酶。肝脏的FruP_2ase在动物饥饿时,利用其他来源的化合物来合成葡萄糖以满足脑部对葡萄糖的需要。肌肉中的FruP_2ase的生理功能尚不完全清楚。Newsholme等发现大黄蜂胸肌的FruP_2ase和果糖磷酸激酶构成的底物循环起着消耗ATP并产生热量,以维持大黄蜂在休息时胸腔的温度。FruP_2ase具有强烈的底物抑制作用。Boiteux等认为正是FruP_2ase的底物抑制和果糖磷酸激酶的产物激活作用,使得酵解过程产生周期性振     

紫花苜蓿果糖-1,6-二磷酸醛缩酶基因全长克隆及分析

根据已知的与盐胁迫相关的EST序列,采用SMART RACE方法克隆了紫花苜蓿果糖-1,6-二磷酸醛缩酶(ALD)全长cDNA,命名为MsALD(GenBank accession No.FJ896113).序列分析结果表明,该cDNA全长1 487 bp,包含一个1 194 bp的最大开放阅读框,编码398个氨基酸.经同源比对和进化树分析,MsALD基因编码的氨基酸与红三叶草、马铃薯、烟草等的果糖-1,6-二磷酸醛缩酶(ALD)氨基酸序列一致性高达90%以上,确定其属于第Ⅰ类果糖-1,6-二磷酸醛缩酶.半定量RT-PCR分析表明,MsALD基因可能与紫花苜蓿抗盐机理相关.     

光合碳在叶片淀粉和蔗糖间分配的调节

叶片光合作用中产生的三碳糖在淀粉和蔗糖之间的分配受许多因素控制,蔗糖形成速率是决定性因素。蔗糖形成的调节酶是果糖1,6—二磷酸酯酶(F1,6P_2ase)和磷酸蔗糖合成酶(SPS),调节作用是通过无机磷(Pi)、磷酸二羟丙酮(DHAP)、磷酸己糖(己糖—P)、果糖1,6—二磷酸(F1,6P_2)和果糖2,6—二磷酸(F2,6P_2)之间的复杂的调节关系进行的。其中F2,6P_2起着关键作用,它以极低的浓度调节生糖和酵解作用,既参与蔗糖合成又参与反馈抑制。     

银鲫果糖-1,6-二磷酸酶的分子克隆与表达分析

果糖-1,6-二磷酸酶(EC 3.1.3.11)是糖异生中的关键限速酶之一, 在糖代谢中起重要作用。哺乳动物存在肝脏型和肌肉型两种果糖-1,6-二磷酸酶同工酶,分别由Fbp1和Fbp2编码。银鲫作为我国重要的经济养殖鱼类, 尚无果糖-1,6-二磷酸酶基因的有关资料, 其组织分布特征和胚胎发育模式亦不清楚。本研究采用RACE方法从银鲫原肠胚SMART cDNA文库中扩增了果糖-1,6-二磷酸酶基因的全长cDNA, 其长度为1170 bp,编码337个氨基酸残基,多重序列比对和系统发育分析表明该基因为肝脏型果糖-1,6-二磷酶。RT-PCR分析虽在银鲫的肝、脑、心、脾、肾、肠、肌肉和卵巢组织中皆能检测到该基因的表达, 但以肝组织的表达量最高。Western Blot检测表明, 肝脏组织除有一条与其他组织(肌肉除外)共有的蛋白带之外,还有一条特异带;肌肉中有不同于其他组织的特异带。成熟卵子和不同发育阶段胚胎的RT-PCR和Western Blot分析都可检测到母源的CagFbp转录本和蛋白,且其转录本从原肠期开始上升, 到神经胚时迅速上升到较高水平, 其蛋白从尾芽期以后出现一条比母源蛋白分子量小、与肝脏的特异带大小基本相同的蛋白带。这些结果证实本研究克隆的CagFbp为肝脏型,且鱼类至少存在肝脏型和肌肉型两种果糖-1,6-二磷酸酶同工酶。       

蛇肌果糖1,6-二磷酸酯酶激活和抑制状态的进一步研究

蛇肌果糖1,6-二磷酸酯酶(FruP_2ase)在K~+存在下或经枯草杆菌蛋白酶或胰蛋白酶限制性酶解后,其中性pH的活力均有2倍或2倍以上增加。三种高活性形式的酶其紫外差光谱都同酶在尿素中的差光谱峰形基本一致。它们在受底物抑制的阈值、Mg~(2+)活化行为、K_m值、最适pH、同DTNB反应的能力以及巯基修饰后酶活力的变化等方面均有明显不同。说明三种高活性形式的酶构象呈松弛状态,但是在构象上是有差别的。受AMP抑制的酶2个快速反应巯基被DTNB修饰后,其pH7.5活力增加到对照酶活力的2.5倍,在这种条件下可反应的总巯基数为4,这时酶仍可保持在高活性状态。而底物抑制的酶,则观察不到快反应巯基,这种条件下,可反应的总巯基数为14。说明受AMP抑制的酶的构象比受底物抑制的酶的构象更为紧凑。     

蛇肌果糖1,6-二磷酸酯酶的冷失活

蛇肌果糖1,6-二磷酸酯酶在0℃左右很易失活。这是它不同于兔肌果糖1,6-二磷酸酯酶的一个特性。这种冷失活可被底物保护,提高溶液中酶蛋白的浓度可降低其失活程度。现有的结果表明,这一失活是不可逆的,且不伴随有亚基的解离或整个分子结构的松散;但用1-苯胺萘-8-磺酸作萤光探剂和用5,5'-硫-二(2-硝基苯甲酸)与巯基反应可探测到酶分子在低温诱导下发生了比较小的构象变化。     

水稻细胞质1,6-二磷酸果糖酶基因1 195 bp的上游调控序列的克隆及其在转基因水稻中的表达研究

1,6-二磷酸果糖酶(EC3.13.11)催化1,6-二磷酸果糖分解为6-磷酸葡萄糖和无机磷酸.在高等植物的光合作用细胞中,存在两种1,6-二磷酸果糖酶:即叶绿体型1,6-二磷酸果糖酶和细胞质型1,6-二磷酸果糖酶.由于细胞质型1,6-二磷酸果糖酶在植物碳水化合物代谢中起重要作用,且具有表达特异性,本试验通过Genome Walking分离了水稻细胞质型1,6-二磷酸果糖酶基因的上游序列,并将其与β-葡糖醛酸酶(GUS)报告基因构建成嵌合表达载体.采用基因枪法转化水稻,在转基因水稻中分析了GUS的表达活性和特异性.组织化学检测表明,在转基因水稻的成熟叶片中,GUS基因只在叶肉细胞中表达,在表皮细胞、泡状细胞、维管组织中均无表达;在叶鞘中的表达与叶片中相似,仅仅在叶肉细胞中表达;在根、茎所有细胞中均没有蓝色反应.为进一步研究1,6-二磷酸果糖酶基因启动子在水稻中的表达量,对12株独立来源的转基因水稻的GUS 活性进行了荧光定量分析.结果显示,水稻成熟叶片中的GUS活性平均值为7 031.5 pmol 4-MU-1*min-1*mg蛋白.在不同器官及组织中表达活性有差异,在转基因水稻的叶片、叶鞘中GUS均有较强的表达,在根、茎中未检测到GUS活性.实验结果表明,ATG上游1 195 bp调控区足以导致GUS基因在水稻中的特异性表达,因此该片段包含有使报告基因在叶肉细胞中特异性表达的所有顺式调控元件.     

蛇肌果糖1,6-二磷酸酯酶的冷失活

蛇肌果糖1,6-二磷酸酯酶在0℃左右很易失活。这是它不同于兔肌果糖1,6-二磷酸酯酶的一个特性。这种冷失活可被底物保护,提高溶液中酶蛋白的浓度可降低其失活程度。现有的结果表明,这一失活是不可逆的,且不伴随有亚基的解离或整个分子结构的松散;但用1-苯胺萘-8-磺酸作萤光探剂和用5,5'-二硫-二(2-硝基苯甲酸)与巯基反应可探测到酶分子在低温诱导下发生了比较小的构象变化。     

科技信息

微生物生产二磷酸果糖1,6-二磷酸果糖(fructose-1,6-diphosphate)简称FDP,又叫“福达平”,系糖代谢的中间产物,溶于水,是人体生命活动所必需的,在细胞代谢过程中起调节剂、生物催化剂和细胞强壮剂的重要作用。已将这种果糖研制成产品用医疗保健,治心脑血管病、糖尿病等重要疾病     

蛇肌果糖1，6－二磷酸酯酶、果糖2，6－二磷酸、AMP的结合部位关系

腺苷－磷酸（ＡＭＰ）对４个快反应巯基被修饰的蛇肌果糖１,６－二磷酸酯酶活性的抑制作用增强,而该修饰的酶受果糖２,６－二磷酸的抑制脱敏。ＡＭＰ对酶抑制为半部位反应,酶受果糖２,６－二磷酸抑制的脱敏则表现为全部位反应。经枯草杆菌蛋白酶限制性酶解的果糖１,６－二磷酸酯酶的Ｋｉ（ＡＭＰ）增大１０倍,但受果糖２,６－二磷酸抑制的性质不变。经胰蛋白酶限制性酶解的果糖１,６－二磷酸酯酶的活性不再为ＡＭＰ抑制,但果糖２,６－二磷酸对该形式酶的抑制作用则明显增强,由于该酶失去受ＡＭＰ的抑制作用,因此ＡＭＰ促进果糖２,６－二磷酸抑制的性质亦随之丧失。据此提出在蛇肌果糖１,６－二磷酸酯酶中果糖２,６－二磷酸不是结合在ＡＭＰ结合部位上的看法。     

蛇肌果糖1，6－二磷酸酯酶果糖2，6－二磷酸和底物抑制的结合部位

在果糖１,６—二磷酸酯酶中果糖２,６—二磷酸可能与底物抑制的作用方式不同,因为蛇肌果糖１,６－二磷酸酯酶ｐＨ９．２的活性受到果糖２,６－二磷酸的抑制,而不受高浓度底物的影响。Ｋ＋能增强果糖２,６—二磷酸对酶活性抑制,并能较大程度地解除过量底物的抑制。快反应流基修饰酶不再受较低浓度果糖２,６—二磷酸的抑制,但高浓度果糖２,６—二磷酸仍能抑制酶活性,其ＩＣ５０增大４０倍。修饰酶受底物抑制的阈值不变。为胰蛋白酶或枯草杆菌蛋白酶限制性酶解的果糖１,６—二磷酸酯酶受过量底物和果糖２,６—二磷酸抑制的行为也不相同。以上结果可能提示在蛇肌果糖１,６—二磷酸酯酸中存在既有别于ＡＭＰ,又有别于过量底物的结合部位。     

蛇肌果糖1，6－二磷酸酯酶的R态和T态的构象

几种高活性形式的蛇肌果糖１,６－二磷酸酯酸的紫外差光谱与酶在尿素或盐酸胍中差光谱相似,它们的酶学性质及巯基暴露的程度各不相同,提示这些高活性形式的酶的构象呈稳定的松驰状态（Ｂ态）,构象松驰的程度也各不相同。受果糖２,６－二磷酸、ＡＭＰ和过量底物抑制的酶处于三种不同的低活性状态,它们的构象特征与Ｒ态相反,提示此三种低活性酶构象处于较紧凑状态（Ｔ态）。这几种Ｔ态酶流基暴露的程度,受蛋白水解酶限制性酶解的速度不同,说明这些Ｔ态酶的构象的紧凑程度是有差异的。蛇肌酶的不同的活化状态所具有不同的稳定的构象状态,在能量上可能相差很小,便于受到多种因子的调节。这可能是别构酶所普遍具有的现象。     

Rabbit liver fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase: labeling of the active and allosteric sites with pyridoxal 5-phosphate and sequence of a nonapeptide from the active site

The active and allosteric sites of fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase (Fru-P₂ase, EC 3.1.3.11) were labeled by reaction with pyridoxal phosphate and sodium borohydride in the presence of the allosteric inhibitor AMP or the substrate, Fru-P₂, respectively. Modification of the active site results in loss of activity. Modification of the allosteric site decreases the sensitivity of the enzyme to inhibition by AMP and alters its ability to bind to blue dextran-Sepharose. The allosteric and active sites have been located on different cyanogen bromide peptides; the sequence of a nonapeptide from the active site is (H)GlyLysLeuArgLeuLeu TyrGluCys(OH). The lysyl residue is modified by pyridoxal phosphate.     

Structure of a ternary complex of an allosteric lactate dehydrogenase from Bacillus stearothermophilus at 2.5 A resolution.

We report the refined structure of a ternary complex of an allosterically activated lactate dehydrogenase, including the important active site loop. Eightfold non-crystallographic symmetry averaging was utilized to improve the density maps. Interactions between the protein and bound coenzyme and oxamate are described in relation to other studies using site-specific mutagenesis. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (FruP2) is bound to the enzyme across one of the 2-fold axes of the tetramer, with the two phosphate moieties interacting with two anion binding sites, one on each of two subunits, across this interface. However, because FruP2 binds at this special site, yet does not possess an internal 2-fold symmetry axis, the ligand is statistically disordered and binds to each site in two different orientations. Binding of FruP2 to the tetramer is signalled to the active site principally through two interactions with His188 and Arg173. His188 is connected to His195 (which binds the carbonyl group of the substrate) and Arg173 is connected to Arg171 (the residue that binds the carboxylate group of the substrate).     

Allosteric site-mediated active site inhibition of PBP2a using Quercetin 3-O-rutinoside and its combination

Recent crystallographic study revealed the involvement of allosteric site in active site inhibition of penicillin binding protein (PBP2a), where one molecule of Ceftaroline (Cef) binds to the allosteric site of PBP2a and paved way for the other molecule (Cef) to bind at the active site. Though Cef has the potency to inhibit the PBP2a, its adverse side effects are of major concern. Previous studies have reported the antibacterial property of Quercetin derivatives, a group of natural compounds. Hence, the present study aims to evaluate the effect of Quercetin 3-o-rutinoside (Rut) in allosteric site-mediated active site inhibition of PBP2a. The molecular docking studies between allosteric site and ligands (Rut, Que, and Cef) revealed a better binding efficiency (G-score) of Rut (?7.790318) and Cef (?6.194946) with respect to Que (?5.079284). Molecular dynamic (MD) simulation studies showed significant changes at the active site in the presence of ligands (Rut and Cef) at allosteric site. Four different combinations of Rut and Cef were docked and their G-scores ranged between ?6.320 and ?8.623. MD studies revealed the stability of the key residue (Ser403) with Rut being at both sites, compared to other complexes. Morphological analysis through electron microscopy confirmed that combination of Rut and Cefixime was able to disturb the bacterial cell membrane in a similar fashion to that of Rut and Cefixime alone. The results of this study indicate that the affinity of Rut at both sites were equally good, with further validations Rut could be considered as an alternative for inhibiting MRSA growth.     

On the nucleotide binding domain of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase.

Native chicken liver fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (Fru-P₂ase) can bind to blue dextranSepharose affinity column and is not displaced by its sugar-phosphate substrate; however; it is readily eluted by the inhibitor 5′-AMP. Treatment of Fru-P₂ase with pyridoxal 5′-phosphate (pyridoxal-P) in the presence of the substrate, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, followed by reduction with NaBH₄ leads to the formation of active pyridoxal-P derivatives of the enzyme showing diminished sensitivity to AMP inhibitor. The modified enzyme does not bind to the affinity column. On the other hand, in the presence of AMP modification of Fru-P₂ase with pyridoxal-P occurs at the catalytic site; this modification does not alter its binding behavior toward the dye ligand. Blue dextran can also protect Fru-P₂ase against AMP inhibition, and it is a competitive desensitizer for the nucleotide ligand. The results establish that blue dextran binds specifically to the allosteric site of the enzyme, and that the structure of this site may resemble that of the dinucleotide fold in other enzymes. Like native Fru-P₂ase, digestion of pyridoxal-P-Fru-P₂ase (with regulatory properties altered) with subtilisin causes a severalfold increase in the catalytic activity measured at pH 9.2, without significant change in the activity at pH 7.5, and produces a peptide with 56 amino acids. The residual subunit, M_r ~ 30,000, was found to contain all of the incorporated pyridoxal-P.     

IIAGlc inhibition of glycerol kinase: a communications network tunes protein motions at the allosteric site

Steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy methods applied to an extrinsic fluorophore that is conjugated to non-native cysteine residues demonstrate that amino acids in an allosteric communication network within a protein subunit tune protein backbone motions at a distal site to enable allosteric binding and inhibition. The unphosphorylated form of the phosphocarrier protein IIAGlc is an allosteric inhibitor of Escherichia coli glycerol kinase, binding more than 25 A from the kinase active site. Crystal structures that showed a ligand-dependent conformational change and large temperature factors for the IIAGlc-binding site on E. coli glycerol kinase suggest that motions of the allosteric site have an important role in the inhibition. Three E. coli glycerol kinase amino acids that are located at least 15 A from the active site and the allosteric site were shown previously to be necessary for transplanting IIAGlc inhibition into the nonallosteric glycerol kinase from Haemophilus influenzae. These three amino acids are termed the coupling locus. The apparent allosteric site motions and the requirement for the distant coupling locus to transplant allosteric inhibition suggest that the coupling locus modulates the motions of the IIAGlc-binding site. To evaluate this possibility, variants of E. coli glycerol kinase and the chimeric, allosteric H. influenzae glycerol kinase were constructed with a non-native cysteine residue replacing one of the native residues in the IIAGlc-binding site. The extrinsic fluorophore Oregon Green 488 (2',7'-difluorofluorescein) was conjugated specifically to the non-native cysteine residue. Steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy measurements show that the motions of the fluorophore reflect backbone motions of the IIAGlc-binding site and these motions are modulated by the amino acids at the coupling locus.     

Allosteric coupling in pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 2

Mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 2 (PDHK2) phosphorylates the pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex (PDC) and thereby controls the rate of oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate. The activity of PDHK2 is regulated by a variety of metabolites such as pyruvate, NAD (+), NADH, CoA, and acetyl-CoA. The inhibitory effect of pyruvate occurs through the unique binding site, which is specific for pyruvate and its synthetic analogue dichloroacetate (DCA). The effects of NAD (+), NADH, CoA, and acetyl-CoA are mediated by the binding site that recognizes the inner lipoyl-bearing domain (L2) of the dihydrolipoyl transacetylase (E2). Both allosteric sites are separated from the active site of PDHK2 by more than 20 A. Here we show that mutations of three amino acid residues located in the vicinity of the active site of PDHK2 (R250, T302, and Y320) make the kinase resistant to the inhibitory effect of DCA, thereby uncoupling the active site from the allosteric site. In addition, we provide evidence that substitutions of R250 and T302 can partially or completely uncouple the L2-binding site. Based on the available structural data, R250, T302, and Y320 stabilize the "open" and "closed" conformations of the built-in lid that controls the access of a nucleotide into the nucleotide-binding cavity. This strongly suggests that the mobility of ATP lid is central to the allosteric regulation of PDHK2 activity serving as a conformational switch required for communication between the active site and allosteric sites in the kinase molecule.     

A bifunctional allosteric site in the dimer interface of procaspase-3

The dimer interface of caspase-3 contains a bifunctional allosteric site in which the enzyme can be activated or inactivated, depending on the context of the protein. In the mature caspase-3, the binding of allosteric inhibitors to the interface results in an order-to-disorder transition in the active site loops. In procaspase-3, by contrast, the binding of allosteric activators to the interface results in a disorder-to-order transition in the active site. We have utilized the allosteric site to identify a small molecule activator of procaspase and to characterize its binding to the protease. The data suggest that an efficient activator must stabilize the active conformer of the zymogen by expelling the intersubunit linker from the interface, and it must interact with active site residues found in the allosteric site. Small molecule activators that fulfill the two requirements should provide scaffolds for drug candidates as a therapeutic strategy for directly promoting procaspase-3 activation in cancer cells.