海马神经振荡的产生机制和功能

神经元集群(neuronal ensemble)的节律性活动往往能诱导产生清晰可见的神经振荡,反映着该群神经元规则化和同步化的活动。通常依据频率可将神经振荡分为delta振荡(0.5~3 Hz)、theta振荡(4~12 Hz)、beta振荡(12~30 Hz)、gamma振荡(30~100 Hz)和尖波涟漪(sharp-wave ripples,SWR)(100 Hz的纹波叠加在0.01~3 Hz的尖波上)。这些神经振荡在人和动物的许多脑区中出现,常伴随着感觉、运动、睡眠等行为产生,在认知、学习和记忆巩固过程中发挥着至关重要的作用。本文简要回顾海马脑区神经振荡的研究历程,对其中的最重要的三种神经振荡——theta振荡、gamma振荡和SWR的产生机制、主要功能及各频率神经振荡的相互作用作出概述,并对今后的研究方向作出展望。     

与突触可塑性相关的神经振荡和信息流研究

作为一种有节律的神经活动,神经振荡现象发生在所有的神经系统中,例如大脑皮层、海马、皮层下神经核团以及感觉器官.本综述首先给出了已有的研究结果,即基于theta和gamma频段的同步神经振荡揭示了认知过程的起源与本质,如学习与记忆.然后介绍了关于神经振荡分析的新技术和算法,如表征神经元突触可塑性的神经信息流方向指数,并例...     

淀粉样β蛋白抑制大鼠海马theta节律并致行为脱抑制和空间记忆损伤

海马神经元网络振荡与哺乳动物学习记忆、焦虑及行为抑制密切相关。阿尔茨海默病患者早期表现出的认知功能减退及行为脱抑制,极可能与海马内沉积的淀粉样β蛋白(amyloid β protein,Aβ)损伤了海马神经元网络电活动有关,但海马注射Aβ能否在伤害学习记忆功能的同时也引起行为脱抑制和改变神经元同步化活动,仍缺乏足够的动物实验证据。本研究利用Morris水迷宫、高架十字迷宫和在体局部场电位记录技术,观察了海马注射Aβ1–42寡聚体对大鼠空间学习记忆和行为抑制活动的影响,并分析了海马theta节律的改变。结果表明,与对照组相比,海马注射Aβ1–42寡聚体两周后:(1)大鼠在高架十字迷宫中焦虑性减低,出现明显的行为脱抑制现象,去开臂次数和在开臂停留时间均明显增加;(2)大鼠空间学习、记忆严重受损,水迷宫定位航行实验中寻找水下平台的潜伏期明显延长,空间探索实验中在原平台象限的游泳时间百分比明显减小;(3)大鼠海马CA1区theta节律压抑,由夹尾刺激诱导的theta节律的功率峰值明显减低,而theta节律功率峰值对应的频率值未发生改变。以上结果表明,海马注射Aβ1–42寡聚体可同时引起大鼠行为脱抑制、空间记忆损伤和海马theta节律压抑。这提示,AD患者出现的学习记忆能力障碍和精神行为异常很可能与Aβ对海马神经元网络theta节律活动的压抑以及由此引起的突触可塑性下调有关。     

颞叶癫痫患者海马CA3和内嗅皮层网络的癫痫尖波对theta节律抑制作用的量化评估

海马CA3和内嗅皮层(entorhinal cortex,EC)网络是海马认知功能和颞叶癫痫研究的关键回路之一,尖波对海马网络theta(4~8 Hz)节律抑制作用的研究有利于揭示癫痫对认知功能影响的机制。以往,在网络层面上,该抑制作用常借助脑片来实现定量评估。本文旨在建立依赖于脑深度局部场电位评估癫痫尖波对theta节律抑制作用的方法。从4位术前处于快速眼球运动(rapid eyes movement,REM)睡眠下的颞叶癫痫患者皮质电极记录中择取发作间期有散发性尖波(sporadic spikes,SSs)脑电和两个相邻SSs间无尖波暂态期脑电,尖波分别只在CA3、只在EC、或在CA3和EC同步出现,应用Gabor小波和Hilbert变换计算尖波前后和无尖波暂态期theta能量,并计算无尖波暂态期theta节律的断裂程度。结果显示:(1)尖波可瞬时降低theta能量,CA3和EC同步尖波时下降最为剧烈,抑制作用最强;(2)无尖波暂态期theta能量下降,出现theta节律消失,造成节律断裂,表明抑制作用在持续,且断裂程度与尖波附近抑制作用一致;(3)3例患者无尖波暂态期theta能量水平降低程度与尖波附近抑制作用一致,而1例不一致。本文结果提示,SSs可对theta节律产生瞬时、直接的抑制作用,该抑制作用可在无尖波暂态期持续,并可由theta节律断裂程度反映。该工作首次应用局部场电位证明了癫痫尖波对theta节律抑制作用可通过无尖波时脑电节律的断裂程度来评估,为利用脑电衡量癫痫尖波抑制作用提供了量化分析方法。     

Gamma节律：认知障碍疾病的潜在诊断靶点

神经精神类疾病是威胁人类健康的重大疾病,具有高患病率的特点,且患者通常伴随有认知障碍.长期以来,临床针对神经精神疾病的诊断主要是根据患者的临床表现,缺乏统一的客观标准,治疗手段也具有一定的难度且会产生副作用.因此开发高效客观的诊疗方式是神经精神疾病研究和临床实践的重难点.脑电图是反映脑功能变化的一种临床检查方式,其特征性节律的检测可作为大脑损伤的指标. Gamma节律(γ节律)作为与认知相关的一个重要神经节律,在大脑高级功能中扮演重要角色.众多研究发现神经精神类疾病的患者和动物模型伴随有γ节律的紊乱,这预示着基于认知核心脑区γ节律的神经检测与调控可能实现精准诊疗.本文综述了面向神经退行性疾病和精神类疾病开展的γ节律研究进展,通过梳理以往研究中γ节律在调节认知、学习记忆时的特征规律和相关分子基础,提出γ节律可能成为未来临床检测神经精神疾病无创高效的客观靶标,并在此基础上对未来的研究进行了展望.     

突触蛋白在学习记忆过程中的作用

学习和记忆是脑的高级功能。学习指人和动物获得外界知识的神经过程;记忆指将获得的知识储存和读出的神经过程。突触蛋白(synapsin)是一种与突触结构和功能密切相关的膜蛋白,在突触的可塑性以及长时程增强(long-timepotentiation,LTP)中起着重要作用。而突触可塑性是突触对内外环境变化作出反应的能力,是学习记忆的神经生物学基础。LTP一直被认为是学习记忆的神经基础之一,是突触可塑性的功能指标,也是研究学习记忆的理想模型。该文介绍突触蛋白在学习记忆过程中的作用及机制、突触蛋白在学习记忆研究中的应用。     

信号转导通路与表观遗传模式在学习和记忆中的作用

海马区神经突触长时程增强(LTP)是应用最广的神经突触可塑性研究模型,为学习和记忆脑功能的基础.cAMP反应元件结合蛋白(cAMP-CREB)、Ras/细胞外信号调节激酶(Ras /ERK)等信号通路参与了学习和记忆的过程.通过组蛋白乙酰化和DNA甲基化对染色质结构进行调节,可以介导长时间、持续性的学习和记忆行为变化,其中,丝裂素活化蛋白激酶(MAPK)级联通路起到了关键作用.本文就学习和记忆形成中的信号转导、表观遗传模式及两者在学习和记忆中的作用进行综述.     

Gamma神经振荡产生机制及其功能研究进展

Gamma神经振荡的频率在30～100 Hz之间,存在于动物和人类大脑的多个区域,如丘脑、体感皮层以及海马等部位,在各个尺度水平上都可被检测到.抑制性中间神经元组成的神经网络是产生此高频节律性活动的主要条件之一.皮层的gamma神经振荡与丘脑-皮层系统有关.Gamma神经振荡具有易化突触可塑性和调节神经网络的作用,主要参与感觉特征绑定、选择性注意以及记忆等高级功能.     

无线神经遥测技术在阿尔茨海默病转基因小鼠恐惧学习记忆活动中的应用——海马Theta节律观察

APP/PS1/tau三转基因(3xTg)小鼠是国际公认的阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease, AD)动物模型,其6月龄时即可表现出与海马相关的认知活动障碍及电生理指标异常,但同步记录AD小鼠行为学和脑电活动的研究仍鲜有报道。近年来,无线遥测技术的发展为同步记录小动物行为和脑电活动创造了条件。本研究利用无线神经遥测技术,结合行为学检测手段,同步记录了3xTg AD小鼠在恐惧记忆活动过程中的行为学表现和海马Theta节律变化,以期揭示AD时认知功能障碍与Theta节律的关系。结果显示:(1)恐惧学习训练阶段,3xTg小鼠与野生型(wild type, WT)小鼠相比,行为学和脑电活动均无明显差异;(2)记忆检测阶段,3xTg小鼠因条件刺激(conditioning stimulus, CS)引起的僵直比率显著低于WT小鼠;(3)条件刺激前(Pre-CS)与CS期间3xTg小鼠海马Theta节律的峰值功率均明显低于WT小鼠;(4) CS可有效提高WT小鼠海马CA1区Theta节律的峰值频率,而这一刺激对3xTg小鼠无效。以上结果表明,3xTg小鼠在认知行为障碍即恐惧学习记忆能力下降的同时,伴有海马CA1区Theta节律的发放频率与发放功率降低。据此推测,Theta节律活动的衰减与3xTg小鼠恐惧记忆行为障碍有关,增强海马Theta节律可能有助于认知行为的改善。     

神经元的突触可塑性与学习和记忆

大量研究表明,神经元的突触可塑性包括功能可塑性和结构可塑性,与学习和记忆密切相关.最近,在经过训练的动物海马区,记录到了学习诱导的长时程增强(long term potentiation,LTP),如果用激酶抑制剂阻断晚期LTP,就会使大鼠丧失训练形成的记忆.这些结果指出,LTP可能是形成记忆的分子基础.因此,进一步研究哺乳动物脑内突触可塑性的分子机制,对揭示学习和记忆的神经基础有重要意义.此外,在精神迟滞性疾病和神经退行性疾病患者脑内记录到异常的LTP,并发现神经元的树突棘数量减少,形态上产生畸变或萎缩,同时发现,产生突变的基因大多编码调节突触可塑性的信号通路蛋白,故突触可塑性研究也将促进精神和神经疾病的预防和治疗.综述了突触可塑性研究的最新进展,并展望了其发展前景.     

Transient slow gamma synchrony underlies hippocampal memory replay

The replay of previously stored memories during hippocampal sharp wave ripples (SWRs) is thought to support both memory retrieval and consolidation?in distributed hippocampal-neocortical circuits. Replay events consist of precisely timed sequences of spikes from CA3 and CA1 neurons that are coordinated both within and across hemispheres. The mechanism of this coordination is not understood. Here, we show that during SWRs in both awake and quiescent states there are transient increases in slow gamma (20-50?Hz) power and synchrony across dorsal CA3 and CA1 networks of both hemispheres. These gamma oscillations entrain CA3 and CA1 spiking. Moreover, during awake SWRs, higher levels of slow gamma synchrony are predictive of higher quality replay of past experiences. Our results indicate that CA3-CA1 gamma synchronization is a central component of awake memory replay and suggest that transient gamma synchronization serves as a clocking mechanism to enable coordinated memory reactivation across the hippocampal network.     

Oscillations in the prefrontal cortex: a gateway to memory and attention

We consider the potential role of oscillations in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in mediating attention, working memory and memory consolidation. Activity in the theta, beta, and gamma bands is related to communication between PFC and different brain areas. While gamma/beta oscillations mediate bottom-up and top-down interactions between PFC and visual cortices, related to attention, theta rhythms are engaged by hippocampal/PFC interplay. These interactions are dynamic, depending on the nature and relevance of the information currently being processed. The profound modifications of the PFC neuronal network associated with changes in oscillatory coherence are controlled by neuromodulators such as dopamine, which thereby allow or prevent the formation of cell assemblies for information encoding and storage.     

Hippocampal memory consolidation during sleep: a comparison of mammals and birds

The transition from wakefulness to sleep is marked by pronounced changes in brain activity. The brain rhythms that characterize the two main types of mammalian sleep, slow‐wave sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, are thought to be involved in the functions of sleep. In particular, recent theories suggest that the synchronous slow‐oscillation of neocortical neuronal membrane potentials, the defining feature of SWS, is involved in processing information acquired during wakefulness. According to the Standard Model of memory consolidation, during wakefulness the hippocampus receives input from neocortical regions involved in the initial encoding of an experience and binds this information into a coherent memory trace that is then transferred to the neocortex during SWS where it is stored and integrated within preexisting memory traces. Evidence suggests that this process selectively involves direct connections from the hippocampus to the prefrontal cortex (PFC), a multimodal, high‐order association region implicated in coordinating the storage and recall of remote memories in the neocortex. The slow‐oscillation is thought to orchestrate the transfer of information from the hippocampus by temporally coupling hippocampal sharp‐wave/ripples (SWRs) and thalamocortical spindles. SWRs are synchronous bursts of hippocampal activity, during which waking neuronal firing patterns are reactivated in the hippocampus and neocortex in a coordinated manner. Thalamocortical spindles are brief 7–14 Hz oscillations that may facilitate the encoding of information reactivated during SWRs. By temporally coupling the readout of information from the hippocampus with conditions conducive to encoding in the neocortex, the slow‐oscillation is thought to mediate the transfer of information from the hippocampus to the neocortex. Although several lines of evidence are consistent with this function for mammalian SWS, it is unclear whether SWS serves a similar function in birds, the only taxonomic group other than mammals to exhibit SWS and REM sleep. Based on our review of research on avian sleep, neuroanatomy, and memory, although involved in some forms of memory consolidation, avian sleep does not appear to be involved in transferring hippocampal memories to other brain regions. Despite exhibiting the slow‐oscillation, SWRs and spindles have not been found in birds. Moreover, although birds independently evolved a brain region—the caudolateral nidopallium (NCL)—involved in performing high‐order cognitive functions similar to those performed by the PFC, direct connections between the NCL and hippocampus have not been found in birds, and evidence for the transfer of information from the hippocampus to the NCL or other extra‐hippocampal regions is lacking. Although based on the absence of evidence for various traits, collectively, these findings suggest that unlike mammalian SWS, avian SWS may not be involved in transferring memories from the hippocampus. Furthermore, it suggests that the slow‐oscillation, the defining feature of mammalian and avian SWS, may serve a more general function independent of that related to coordinating the transfer of information from the hippocampus to the PFC in mammals. Given that SWS is homeostatically regulated (a process intimately related to the slow‐oscillation) in mammals and birds, functional hypotheses linked to this process may apply to both taxonomic groups.     

A computational study on altered theta-gamma coupling during learning and phase coding

There is considerable interest in the role of coupling between theta and gamma oscillations in the brain in the context of learning and memory. Here we have used a neural network model which is capable of producing coupling of theta phase to gamma amplitude firstly to explore its ability to reproduce reported learning changes and secondly to memory-span and phase coding effects. The spiking neural network incorporates two kinetically different GABA(A) receptor-mediated currents to generate both theta and gamma rhythms and we have found that by selective alteration of both NMDA receptors and GABA(A,slow) receptors it can reproduce learning-related changes in the strength of coupling between theta and gamma either with or without coincident changes in theta amplitude. When the model was used to explore the relationship between theta and gamma oscillations, working memory capacity and phase coding it showed that the potential storage capacity of short term memories, in terms of nested gamma-subcycles, coincides with the maximal theta power. Increasing theta power is also related to the precision of theta phase which functions as a potential timing clock for neuronal firing in the cortex or hippocampus.     

Theta-gamma coupling emerges from spatially heterogeneous cholinergic neuromodulation

Theta and gamma rhythms and their cross-frequency coupling play critical roles in perception, attention, learning, and memory. Available data suggest that forebrain acetylcholine (ACh) signaling promotes theta-gamma coupling, although the mechanism has not been identified. Recent evidence suggests that cholinergic signaling is both temporally and spatially constrained, in contrast to the traditional notion of slow, spatially homogeneous, and diffuse neuromodulation. Here, we find that spatially constrained cholinergic stimulation can generate theta-modulated gamma rhythms. Using biophysically-based excitatory-inhibitory (E-I) neural network models, we simulate the effects of ACh on neural excitability by varying the conductance of a muscarinic receptor-regulated K⁺ current. In E-I networks with local excitatory connectivity and global inhibitory connectivity, we demonstrate that theta-gamma-coupled firing patterns emerge in ACh modulated network regions. Stable gamma-modulated firing arises within regions with high ACh signaling, while theta or mixed theta-gamma activity occurs at the peripheries of these regions. High gamma activity also alternates between different high-ACh regions, at theta frequency. Our results are the first to indicate a causal role for spatially heterogenous ACh signaling in the emergence of localized theta-gamma rhythmicity. Our findings also provide novel insights into mechanisms by which ACh signaling supports the brain region-specific attentional processing of sensory information.     

Sharp wave/ripple network oscillations and learning-associated hippocampal maps

Sharp wave/ripple (SWR, 150–250 Hz) hippocampal events have long been postulated to be involved in memory consolidation. However, more recent work has investigated SWRs that occur during active waking behaviour: findings that suggest that SWRs may also play a role in cell assembly strengthening or spatial working memory. Do such theories of SWR function apply to animal learning? This review discusses how general theories linking SWRs to memory-related function may explain circuit mechanisms related to rodent spatial learning and to the associated stabilization of new cognitive maps.     

Elements of a neurobiological theory of the hippocampus: the role of activity-dependent synaptic plasticity in memory

The hypothesis that synaptic plasticity is a critical component of the neural mechanisms underlying learning and memory is now widely accepted. In this article, we begin by outlining four criteria for evaluating the 'synaptic plasticity and memory (SPM)' hypothesis. We then attempt to lay the foundations for a specific neurobiological theory of hippocampal (HPC) function in which activity-dependent synaptic plasticity, such as long-term potentiation (LTP), plays a key part in the forms of memory mediated by this brain structure. HPC memory can, like other forms of memory, be divided into four processes: encoding, storage, consolidation and retrieval. We argue that synaptic plasticity is critical for the encoding and intermediate storage of memory traces that are automatically recorded in the hippocampus. These traces decay, but are sometimes retained by a process of cellular consolidation. However, we also argue that HPC synaptic plasticity is not involved in memory retrieval, and is unlikely to be involved in systems-level consolidation that depends on HPC-neocortical interactions, although neocortical synaptic plasticity does play a part. The information that has emerged from the worldwide focus on the mechanisms of induction and expression of plasticity at individual synapses has been very valuable in functional studies. Progress towards a comprehensive understanding of memory processing will also depend on the analysis of these synaptic changes within the context of a wider range of systems-level and cellular mechanisms of neuronal transmission and plasticity.     

Movement-related theta rhythm in humans: coordinating self-directed hippocampal learning

The hippocampus is crucial for episodic or declarative memory and the theta rhythm has been implicated in mnemonic processing, but the functional contribution of theta to memory remains the subject of intense speculation. Recent evidence suggests that the hippocampus might function as a network hub for volitional learning. In contrast to human experiments, electrophysiological recordings in the hippocampus of behaving rodents are dominated by theta oscillations reflecting volitional movement, which has been linked to spatial exploration and encoding. This literature makes the surprising cross-species prediction that the human hippocampal theta rhythm supports memory by coordinating exploratory movements in the service of self-directed learning. We examined the links between theta, spatial exploration, and memory encoding by designing an interactive human spatial navigation paradigm combined with multimodal neuroimaging. We used both non-invasive whole-head Magnetoencephalography (MEG) to look at theta oscillations and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) to look at brain regions associated with volitional movement and learning. We found that theta power increases during the self-initiation of virtual movement, additionally correlating with subsequent memory performance and environmental familiarity. Performance-related hippocampal theta increases were observed during a static pre-navigation retrieval phase, where planning for subsequent navigation occurred. Furthermore, periods of the task showing movement-related theta increases showed decreased fMRI activity in the parahippocampus and increased activity in the hippocampus and other brain regions that strikingly overlap with the previously observed volitional learning network (the reverse pattern was seen for stationary periods). These fMRI changes also correlated with participant's performance. Our findings suggest that the human hippocampal theta rhythm supports memory by coordinating exploratory movements in the service of self-directed learning. These findings directly extend the role of the hippocampus in spatial exploration in rodents to human memory and self-directed learning.     

Autobiographical Thinking Interferes with Episodic Memory Consolidation

New episodic memories are retained better if learning is followed by a few minutes of wakeful rest than by the encoding of novel external information. Novel encoding is said to interfere with the consolidation of recently acquired episodic memories. Here we report four experiments in which we examined whether autobiographical thinking, i.e. an ‘internal’ memory activity, also interferes with episodic memory consolidation. Participants were presented with three wordlists consisting of common nouns; one list was followed by wakeful rest, one by novel picture encoding and one by autobiographical retrieval/future imagination, cued by concrete sounds. Both novel encoding and autobiographical retrieval/future imagination lowered wordlist retention significantly. Follow-up experiments demonstrated that the interference by our cued autobiographical retrieval/future imagination delay condition could not be accounted for by the sound cues alone or by executive retrieval processes. Moreover, our results demonstrated evidence of a temporal gradient of interference across experiments. Thus, we propose that rich autobiographical retrieval/future imagination hampers the consolidation of recently acquired episodic memories and that such interference is particularly likely in the presence of external concrete cues.