The implications of palaeontological evidence for theories of ecological communities and species richness

Abstract Palaeontological evidence raises several questions that relate to current explanations of ecological communities, to the classification of communities and to interpretations of species richness. The first question relates to the stability of species detected in the fossil record. Coupled with that is the issue of incidental association of species on the same trophic level through differential effects of climatic change on the different species. Such observations are seen to support the ‘individualistic’ concept of communities. Recent statements about this concept leave unresolved questions about the acquisition of adaptation, and about the place of adaptation theory in theories of ecological communities and interpretations of ‘regional species richness’. At issue is whether there is justification for continuing to classify communities as a basis for understanding them. There is good reason to reject this approach for one in which questions about communities and ‘local’ and ‘regional’ species richness are replaced by more specific and basic questions about the relationship between adaptation, distribution and abundance, and ecological interactions. Some recent efforts to incorporate species theory into community theory fail because their basis remains the flawed concept of ‘local community’.     

南京地区耐寒常绿阔叶树种资源调查

南京地区地处亚热带北缘,是一些常绿阔叶树种自然分布的北界.通过对南京地区常绿阔叶树种的实地考察,表明南京地区有12种自然分布的常绿阔叶树种;目前园林上引种并已应用的有25种.另外,引种了109种能够露地栽培的常绿阔叶树种,其中乔木28种,灌木77种,藤本4种.可以认为南京地区是耐寒常绿阔叶树种引种分布的关键地区.     

Nephrotoxins and nephrotoxic species of the genus Penicillium Link

The present article is a review about the nephrotoxic species of Penicillium Link. Some chemical and toxicological information in connection with the nephrotoxins produced is presented. Besides, different opinions about the Penicillium nephrotoxic species classification are considered; particular attention is given to the toxin produced producing species linkage. A key for the determination of the nephrotoxic Penicillium species is presented. Generally, the taxa considered in the present work have been treated in several surveys. However, some diverse opinions about its delimitation, classification and toxin production still remain.     

广西大瑶山自然资源的特点及今后利用的方向

大瑶山是广西有名的大山,北纬23°40′—24°24′,东经109°50′—110°27′,面积约2080平方公里。 大瑶山起源于二迭纪,是一座古老的山体。大瑶山生物种类丰富多彩,区系植物213个科,2335种;陆栖脊椎动物69科,281种;昆虫176科,836种;森林植被四个植被型,34个群系。大瑶山生物地理成份复杂,植物区系有热带东南亚、东亚、北温带、旧世界热带和泛热带的成份;昆虫区系有东洋种、古北种和本地特有种。古老、孑遗和特有、珍稀种类不少,蕨类植物250种,裸子植物7科22种,木兰科4属16种,国家保护的珍稀植物有桫椤、白豆杉、福建柏、猪血木、大果木五加、伞花木、南华木、紫荆、金莲木等35种;珍稀动物有瑶山鳄蜥、猕猴、短尾猴、大鲵、山瑞、红腹角雉等12种。大瑶山具重要经济意义的种类较突出,如:灵香草、八角、玉桂、罗汉果等。因此,大瑶山是广西中部一个重要的生态系统;是广西重要的和理想的科学研究和教学之处;是广西非常重要的自然物种基地;是广西重要的木材和土特产基地。大瑶山今后主要是保护起来,建立自然保护区,同时,大力发展木材和土特产。     

江西省资溪县马头山蕨类植物区系

马头山蕨类植物区系由 3 0科 62属 1 42种组成。区系地理成份复杂 ,科属的地理成份以热带亚热带性质为主。主要的科是鳞毛蕨科 (2 5种 )、水龙骨科 (1 8种 )、金星蕨科 (1 5种 )、卷柏科 (1 1种 )、蹄盖蕨科 (1 1种 ) ,5科占总种数 5 6.3 4%。主要的属是鳞毛蕨属 (1 6种 )、卷柏属 (1 1种 )、凤尾蕨属 (8种 )、铁角蕨属 (8种 )、复叶耳蕨属 (5种 )、假瘤蕨属 (4种 )占总种数 3 6.62 %。马头山蕨类植物区系属的地理成份可分为 8个 ,主要是泛热带 (1 9属 )、热带亚洲 (7属 )、世界广布 (1 9属 )成份 ,占总属数 72 .5 8%。而种的地理成份则以亚热带山地成份为主 ,本区东亚成份突出 ,加上中国特有成份共占总种数的 66.2 1 %。显然应是东亚植物区系的一部分。掌叶假瘤蕨为江西省首次发现。     

湖南壶瓶山国家级自然保护区蝶类区系组成及垂直分布的初步研究

2006年对湖南壶瓶山国家级自然保护区的蝶类资源进行了专题调查,共采集到蝴蝶标本1050号,初步鉴定出134种,结合文献资料记载,共记录了153种,隶属于10科85属。蛱蝶科为优势科,计30属(占35.29%)61种(39.87%)。区系成分以东洋界种类为主,计79种(51.63%),广布种60种(39.22%),而古北界种类仅14种(9.15%)。蝶类呈4个垂直带分布,但主要(88.01%)分布于海拔1100 m以下的常绿阔叶林带。多数蝴蝶适应范围比较窄,仅分布于某一垂直带内。在科级水平上,粉蝶科、眼蝶科和蛱蝶科中具多带种较多,是当地广布类群。     

疆芫菁科的区系组成及药用价值(鞘翅目：芫菁科)

调查表明,新疆芫菁科(Meloidlc)昆虫有41种,分隶于5属,以斑芫菁属Mylabris F.种类最多,达32种,占78.0%;在41种中,有10种为我国首次纪录。区系组成含中亚细亚,蒙古,欧洲,准噶尔和泛古北种五种成分,其中以中亚细亚种最多,达23种,约占56.0%。芫菁是药用昆虫,对常见的10种芫菁药用有效成分-斑蝥素含量进行了测定,发现其中,种含量较高,药用价值明显。     

Elevational diversity patterns of small mammals on Mount Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

1 Diversity patterns of small mammals were studied along an elevational transect on Mount Kinabalu, the highest mountain in South‐east Asia, utilizing data from previously existing sources and a new field study. A mark‐and‐release study (conducted during wet and dry seasons between November 1994 and April 1995) resulted in captures of 12 small mammal species, including two species of squirrels, two tree shrews, seven murid rodents and one gymnure. 2 Based on data compiled from this survey, museum specimens, and published and unpublished literature (analysed by locally weighted sums of squares and quadratic polynomial regressions), species richness of small mammals formed a middle elevation bulge, highest at about 1200–1400 m and declining at lower and higher elevations. Trapping during two seasons did not change the assessment of the pattern. 3 A cluster analysis of these data indicated that there are two elevationally associated faunas, one in the highlands and another in the lowlands. The transition between these two assemblages is at 1700–1800 m elevation. The lowland faunal assemblage has the highest number of species, with maximum species richness at about 1300 m for total small mammal species, about 1200 m for arboreal species and about 1400 m for terrestrial species. 4 The areas where much overlapping of species occurs are the elevations where climate and vegetation change rapidly from lowland to montane types. Tree species, gymnosperms, orchids and ferns showed a similar curvilinear pattern along the same elevational gradient, with maximum species richness at about 1400–1500 m. Temperature declined progressively with increasing elevation, but rainfall and humidity reached their highest levels at about 1700 m. 5 Maximum diversity of small mammals thus occurred at the elevation where a highland and a lowland assemblage overlapped, where several types of plants reached their maximum diversity, and where rainfall and humidity reached their maxima. Similar patterns have been documented for small mammals, plants, and climate at sites scattered in Indo‐Australia from Taiwan to New Guinea.     

Synopsis ofGalago species characteristics

At the time of the symposium, “Variability Within the Galagos,” at the 1986 IPS Congress, most participants were still using Hill’s (1953) classification and nomenclature of galago species. All participants expressed some degree of dissatisfaction with Hill’s species groups. Many described how it was proving increasingly problematic and inadequate as a means to organize newly collected laboratory, museum, and field data. By the end of the symposium, a consensus about species diversity had emerged which synthesized the current state of knowledge about galagos. The consensus of the participants was that the 11 species, identified by Olson (1979, 1986), most closely approximates the available data about galago species diversity. The 11 species are described.     

How much do we know about the current extinction rate?

Since about J600, 486 animal species have been recorded extinct. This represents about 0.04% of all animal species so far described. In the same period, 600 plant species are known to have disappeared, about 0.25% of the total. These figures are much smaller than those of the Permian/ Triassic and Cretaceous/Tertiary mass extinctions. One might therefore conclude that at present life on earth is at comparatively little risk of extinction. However, there is a growing body of data to show that the converse is true.     

新疆金龟甲的区系组成及食性(鞘翅目：金龟甲总科)

初步查明,新疆金龟甲昆虫计有154种,分隶于2科、13亚科、47属**。区系组成含中亚细亚、中央亚细亚、欧洲—西伯利亚、地中海、特有种、泛古北种和全北种等多种成分,其中以中亚细亚种类最多,达74种,约占48.5%。结合区系组成的分析,提出了新疆昆虫地理区划的划分意见。新疆金龟甲成虫的食性可分为粪食型、腐食型、角质物食型、尸食型、植食型和绝食型,其中粪食型达75种,约占49%,具有重要生态意义;植食型55种,约占36%,具有重要经济意义。     

The number of species of rodent coccidia and of other protozoa

About 447 species of coccidia have been named from the 1687 living, known species of rodents; 207 host species, 92 host genera, and 15 host families are represented; this is about 12% of the known species of rodents. About 4600 species of apicomplexan protozoa have been named. Assuming that the same proportion of the total number of apicomplexan species has been named as of the coccidian species, there must actually be about 38,333 species of apicomplexan protozoa. There are 5.4 times as many protozoan genera as of apicomplexan genera. Assuming that the number of species in each genus is the same for all the protozoa as it is for the Apicomplexa, there may actually be 206,998 species of protozoa. This may be too conservative an estimate. Based on other criteria, an estimate of over 20 million species could be made.     

First phylogenetic and biogeographical study of the southern bluebells (Wahlenbergia, Campanulaceae)

Wahlenbergia is a largely southern hemisphere genus of at least 260 species; within Campanulaceae only Campanula is larger. This first phylogeny of Wahlenbergia was reconstructed using about 20% of the 260 species in the genus based on the nuclear ribosomal ITS marker and the chloroplast trnL-F marker with samples from South Africa, Europe, Australia and New Zealand. Wahlenbergia was confirmed to be non-monophyletic, though most of the species form a clade. Our tree topology and date estimates indicate that Wahlenbergia diverged in South Africa about 29.6 mya, then dispersed to Australasia about 4.8 mya, thus indicating the radiation of Wahlenbergia occurred relatively recently. Radiations occurred in both of these main centres; there are currently about 170 species in South Africa and 45 species and subspecies in Australasia. New Zealand species comprise two clades, both rooted within the Australasian clade. We thus propose two dispersals from Australia to New Zealand, one leading to a radiation of species with the rhizomatous herbaceous growth form ca. 1.6 mya, and the other leading to a radiation of species with the radicate growth form 0.7 mya. Dispersals from Australia to New Zealand match the expected direction, following the west wind drift and ocean currents. The herbaceous growth form was shown to be ancestral for the genus as a whole, and polyploidy has been a mechanism of the evolution of the genus in Australasia.     

Echinoids of the Pacific waters of Panama: status of knowledge and new records

This paper is primarily intended as a guide to researchers who wish to know what echinoid species are available in the Bay of Panama and in the Gulf of Chiriqui, how to recognize them, and what has been published about them up to 2004. Fifty seven species of echinoids have been reported in the literature as occurring in the Pacific waters of Panama, of which I have collected and examined 31, including two species, Caenopedina dìomedìae and Meoma frangibilis, that have hitherto only been mentioned in the literature from single type specimens. For the 31 species I was able to examine, I list the localities in which they were found, my impression as to their relative abundance, the characters that distinguish them, and what is known about their biology and evolution. Not surprisingly, most available information concerns abundant shallow water species, while little is known about deep water, rare, or infaunal species.     

Interspecific abundance–occupancy relationships of British mammals and birds: is it possible to explain the residual variation?

Aim The majority of studies concerning positive interspecific abundance–occupancy relationships have used broad‐scale and microcosm data to test the occurrence and correlates of the relationship to determine which of the proposed mechanisms give rise to it. It has been argued recently that studying the residual variation about abundance–occupancy relationships is a more logical analysis and may yield faster progress in identifying the relative roles of the mechanisms. However, to date this approach has been largely unsuccessful. Here we test if fundamental species traits such as the status (native and introduced), habitat and trophic group of mammal and bird species may explain any of the residual variation about their respective abundance–occupancy relationships. Location The study used British mammal and bird species. Methods We tested if species traits explained any of the variation about abundance–occupancy relationships using linear regression techniques both treating species as independent data points for analysis and controlling for phylogenetic association. Results None of the species traits could explain any residual variation about the positive interspecific abundance–occupancy relationships of British mammals and birds. This applied both when treating species as independent data points and after controlling for phylogenetic association. Conclusions Given the lack of explanatory power of the species traits here and in other studies using this approach it seems that the variation about positive interspecific abundance–occupancy relationships is not explicable in a simple fashion. Predicting the likely influence of traits that are independent of phylogeny is also problematic. Therefore, the general utility of this approach and its future role in understanding the mechanisms causing positive interspecific abundance–occupancy relationships is doubtful.     

Out of Tanganyika: Genesis, explosive speciation, key-innovations and phylogeography of the haplochromine cichlid fishes

Background  

The adaptive radiations of cichlid fishes in East Africa are well known for their spectacular diversity and their astonishingly fast rates of speciation. About 80% of all 2,500 cichlid species in East Africa, and virtually all cichlid species from Lakes Victoria (~500 species) and Malawi (~1,000 species) are haplochromines. Here, we present the most extensive phylogenetic and phylogeographic analysis so far that includes about 100 species and is based on about 2,000 bp of the mitochondrial DNA.     

Reproduction of two species of congeneric fruit bats (Cynopterus) in Brunei, Borneo

In summary, the reproductive cycles of C. minutas and C. brachyotis are shown in Fig. 12. Reproduction of both species is seasonal and continuous bimodal polyoestry, however, reproduction of neither species is linked to rains nor the general season of flowering/fruiting of trees.
Adult females of both species produce 2 litters/yr, 1 neonate/birth. Within each species, the females are in reproductive synchrony, with young born in two distinct seasons (3–4 months each) of parturition 5–7 months apart, centring about the two seasons of less rain, which may correspond to the fruiting of certain species of trees (e.g. mangoes for C. brachyotis ). Each parturition is followed by postpartum oestrus. Gestation spans about 5–6 months, with embryonic development delayed or arrested in early stages. Both sexes of C. minutas (and probably also C. brachyotis ) attain sexual maturity at about 7 months, with females giving birth the first time at about 12 months.     

Adventive flora of Israel — Phytogeographical,ecological and agricultural aspects

73 adventive wild species occur in the flora of Israel: 39 are of tropical origin, 20 are North American. The geographical distribution pattern suggests that about two thirds of the species reached Israel through neighbouring countries, while only one third arrived directly from their countries of origin. — Three patterns of population dynamics can be recognized: accidental species (7), colonizing species (30), and species penetrating into natural habitats (3). There is insufficient information about the remaining species. — About 20 species are widespread noxious weeds which now have economic significance in Israel, 20 others are known to have similar ecological tendencies in other countries. These species soon may become aggressive weeds in Israel.     

滇西北香格里拉县大型真菌资源及其利用现状

香格里拉县（中旬县）位于云南省西北部,该区域内地形地貌复杂,海拔高差悬殊,兼有温带和寒温带高山气候类型。该区具有典型的温性、寒温性针叶林和寒温性常绿阔叶林以及针阔混交林,其中有不少是能与大型真菌形成共生关系的树种,如云南松（Pinus yunnanensis Franch．）、高山松（P．densata Mast．）、川滇高山栎（Quercus aquifolioides Rehd．etWils．）、灰背栎（Q．senescens Hand．-Mazz．）以及高山桦（Betula delavayi Franch．）和白桦（B．platyphylla Suk．）等。     

First report of Melittobia australica Girault in Europe and new record of M. acasta (Walker) for Italy

Melittobia acasta and Melittobia australica are newly recorded from Sicily, Italy, and the second species is reported in Europe for the first time. A short historical background about Melittobia parasitoid wasps, their hosts, and distribution, with emphasis in those two species is presented together with illustrations to facilitate their identification. Brief discussion about the presence and possible distribution of the species in Sicily is also included.