Phytophagous insect communities in the canopies of three Eucalyptus forest types in south-eastern Australia

Intensive sampling of tree canopies for phytophagous insects was carried out in three contrasting eucalypt forest types comprised of species widely distributed in sub-alpine forests in Victoria and New South Wales (Eucalyptus delegatensis, E. dives, and E. pauciflora). The number of phytophagous insects present in the canopies of these forest types was low, with a seasonal average of 20 individuals per kg of foliage (dry weight). Numbers were much lower than expected from past literature reporting‘chronically high’levels of defoliation in eucalypt forests. Microlepidoptera, Geometridae, Chrysomelidae, and Curculionidae were the major leaf-chewing groups recorded. Most sap-feeders were either leafhoppers (Cercopidae and Cicadellidae) or in the superfamily Fulgoroidea. Psyllidae and gall-making species were rare. Leafhoppers made up a very large portion of the phytophagous insect communities in each forest type, particularly in the E. dives forest. Microlepidoptera was the most commonly encountered defoliator group in all three forest types making up 33-44% of the total count. Non-phytophagous arthropods accounted for 44-48% of all individuals encountered. The density of insect defoliators was greater in the lower crown than upper crown. The E. dives canopy supported many more phytophagous insects per unit weight of foliage, as well as more per hectare, than the other two forest types. The greatest number of phytophagous species was also encountered in E. dives canopy. The E. delegatensis canopy supported the lowest number of phytophagous insects per unit weight of foliage as Well as numbers per hectare. Abundance of insect defoliators in the eucalypt forest types in this study was similar to published figures of insect defoliators in northern temperate forests.     

Interplant variation in creosotebush foliage characteristics and canopy arthropods

Summary We conducted a field study to test the hypothesis that creosotebush (Larrea tridentata) shrubs growing in naturally nutrient-rich sites had better quality foliage and supported greater populations of foliage arthropods than shrubs growing in nutrient-poor sites. Nutrient-rich sites had significantly higher concentrations of soil nitrogen than nutrient-poor sites. Multivariate analysis of variance revealed significant differences between high nutrient and low nutrient shrubs based on a number of structural and chemical characteristics measured. High nutrient shrubs were larger, had denser foliage, greater foliage production, higher concentrations of foliar nitrogen and water, and lower concentrations of foliar resin than low nutrient shurbs. Numbers of foliage arthropods, particularly herbivores and predators, were significantly higher on high nutrient shrubs. Shrub characteristics and foliage arthropod abundances varied considerably from shrub to shrub. Shrub characteristics representing shrub size, foliage density, foliage growth, and foliar nitrogen and water concentrations were positively correlated with arthropod abundances. Foliar resin concentrations were negatively correlated with foliage arthropod abundances. The positive relationship between creosotebush productivity and foliage arthropods is contradictory to the tenet that physiologically stressed plants provide better quality foliage to insect herbivores.     

Biomasses of Arthropod Taxa Differentially Increase on Nitrogen‐Fertilized Willows and Cottonwoods

I evaluated soil application of nitrogen fertilizer to 1‐year‐old, flood‐irrigated Salix exigua willows and Populus fremontii cottonwoods as a method for increasing arthropod abundances and biomasses (wet masses) available to insectivorous birds. Shrubs and trees, planted near the lower Colorado River in southeast California for wildlife habitat, were fertilized during April 2008. I collected spiders and insects monthly during the following May–August from unfertilized and fertilized plants by fumigating branches with insecticide. Percentages of N in leaves, and to a lesser extent percentages of water in branches, were greater on fertilized plants (averaging 2.5% N of dry mass) compared with unfertilized plants (1.6% N) in both species. Most arthropods collected were predaceous Araneae (44% of abundance, 52% of biomass) followed by phytophagous Homoptera (34%, 11%) and predaceous or phytophagous Heteroptera (10%, 11%). Abundances and biomasses of Araneae, Heteroptera, and all Arthropoda across months did not differ between unfertilized and fertilized plants in either species controlling for masses of sampled branches. In contrast, biomasses of Homoptera, mostly Cicadellidae followed by Aphididae, were 197% greater on fertilized willows and 228% greater on fertilized cottonwoods. Greater biomasses on fertilized plants were consistent across months. Biomasses of homopterans on branches of each species also increased as leaf N‐concentrations increased. Applying N‐fertilizer to willows and cottonwoods can increase leaf N‐contents and abundances and biomasses of Homoptera. Increased homopteran biomass on N‐fertilized plants may in turn diversify prey available to insectivorous birds.     

川西亚高山白桦林穿透雨和茎流特征观测研究

观测了川西亚高山白桦次生林一个生长季节内的穿透雨和茎流的特征。结果表明 ,幂函数方程能较好地拟合林冠截留量、茎流量与总降雨量之间的关系 ,而线性方程能较好地拟合穿透雨量和总降雨量之间的关系 ;平均林冠截留量占总降雨量的 1 8 9% ,穿透雨量占总降雨量的 80 9% ,茎流量占总降雨量的 0 3%。     

Solute fluxes in throughfall and stemflow in four forest ecosystems in northwest Amazonia

The contribution of throughfall and stemflow as pathways for solute inputs into the forest floor in four mature forests in northwest Amazonia was investigated. Total solute inputs, resulting from the changes of atmospheric deposition after rainfall passes through the forest canopy, are presented in the form of throughfall and stemflow nutrient inputs and their possible sources are discussed. Throughfall is by far the most important solute input into the forest floor of the forests studied. On average, it represents about 98% of the total solute inputs. Although trends in solute enrichment varied among the forests, there is a general tendency in all ecosystems towards a distinct enrichment of SO₄, K, Cl, NO₃ and NH₄ in throughfall and stemflow and a small increase of protons, Mn, orthoP and Fe. When comparing the net enrichment between the forests, the relative increase of solutes in throughfall and stemflow was higher in the flood plain and low terrace than in the high terrace and sedimentary plain forests. While highest values for total cation inputs were observed in the flood plain, the low terrace showed the highest value for total inorganic anions. The length of the antecedent dry period was the main factor affecting throughfall and stemflow composition, concentrations increasing with increasing length. A second, less important factor was the amount of throughfall and stemflow, which showed a poor and negative correlation with solute concentrations. The increased activity of frugivores in the canopy during fruiting periods seemed to lead to temporary increased solute concentrations in throughfall and stemflow as a result of the wash off of deposited faecal materials and detritus in the canopy. Leaching from leaves and wash off of exudes, of solutes deposited on the foliage after evaporation of intercepted rainfall and of dry deposited materials were all found to contribute to the concentration of solutes in the throughfall and stemflow. Gross rainfall enrichment after passing the forest canopy, mainly by nutrient leaching, is considerably lower than the amounts of nutrients released in litterfall implying a tight nutrient cycling and nutrient conserving mechanisms by forests studied.     

模拟降雨条件下玉米植株对降雨再分配过程的影响

为系统测定玉米(Zea mays)不同生长阶段的穿透雨、茎秆流和冠层截留,采用室内模拟降雨法测定了不同降雨强度、不同叶面积指数玉米冠下穿透雨和茎秆流,采用喷雾法测定了玉米不同生长阶段的冠层截留。对其进行了量化分析,并探讨了三者与玉米叶面积指数和降雨强度的关系,阐明了玉米冠下穿透雨的空间分布特征。结果表明:玉米冠下穿透雨量占冠上总降雨量比例为30.97%—94.02%,平均为63.92%;茎秆流量占降雨量比例的变化范围为5.68%—75.70%,平均为35.28%;冠层截留量在其全生育期内变化范围为0.02—0.43 mm,平均为0.16 mm,所占总降雨量比例最大仅为1%。随玉米生长,穿透雨量逐渐降低,茎秆流量和冠层截留量逐渐增加。穿透雨与茎秆流呈现此消彼长的关系,其中穿透雨率平均由93.55%降至36.23%;茎秆流率平均由5.98%增加至70.42%。降雨强度与穿透雨量和茎秆流量呈正相关关系,但是二者占总降雨量的比例与降雨强度关系不显著(P0.05)。随着玉米生长,穿透雨冠下空间分布由均匀逐渐趋向于不均匀,使降雨经过冠层后趋于向行中汇集,但在玉米生长后期,集中于行中的穿透雨量也因叶片衰败而随之降低。揭示了玉米对降雨的再分配作用特征,可为农田水分有效利用、农田生态水文过程机理和坡耕地土壤侵蚀防治提供理论依据。     

半湿润地区城市绿地灌木的截留集水功能及其影响因素

在半湿润地区,创新节水型城市绿地建设模式,实现绿地由耗水型向节水型转变,是学术界关注的热点问题。通过模拟降雨的方法,对半湿润地区城市绿地中的金叶女贞、大叶黄杨、小叶黄杨、红叶石楠、龙柏和侧柏等6种灌木的截留集水功能及其影响因素进行研究。结果表明: 冠层截留和茎流集水是水文过程的两个不同阶段,常绿灌木冠层截留大,但其茎流集水差;随着雨强增大,所有灌木的穿透雨率和茎流率都明显增加,但截留率却相对减少;穿透雨率表现为阔叶灌木显著大于针叶灌木,茎流率趋势与之相同,而截留率则相反。冠层投影中心区域穿透雨率最小,随着与冠层投影中心距离的加大,叶面积指数降低,穿透雨率也呈逐步减少趋势;当雨强为小雨时,冠层投影中心的穿透雨率小,即截留率和茎流率大,当雨强为大雨时,冠层投影中心的穿透雨率大,即截留率和茎流率小;随着雨强增大,冠层外围穿透雨率增大,漏斗形截留集水系统呈缩小趋势。雨强和叶面积指数是显著影响灌木截留集水功能的重要因素;半湿润地区城市绿地在林下配置阔叶灌木更有利于截留集水。     

大兴安岭北部兴安落叶松林穿透雨延滞效应

以黑龙江漠河生态站兴安落叶松天然林为研究对象,对林外雨、穿透雨和树干茎流进行定位观测,分析大兴安岭北部兴安落叶松林穿透雨延滞效应.结果表明： 穿透雨量、树干茎流量和林冠截留量分别占同期降雨总量的76.5%、2.6%和20.9%.降雨发生后,穿透雨与林外雨在产生和终止时间上均存在一定延滞性;随降雨量级增大,穿透雨滞后时间表现出逐渐缩短的趋势,变动范围为（67.8±7.8）～（17.2±3.9） min（穿透雨）和（112.0±38.8）～（48.3±10.6） min（树干茎流）;相同降雨量级下,穿透雨滞后时间随降雨强度增大而逐渐降低,且降雨强度>2 mm·h^-1时延滞时间显著缩短,同时随雨前干燥期的增加而增长,而当雨前干燥期≥48 h时,降雨量则是影响滞后时间的主要因素;降雨终止时,降雨量>5.0 mm,穿透雨终止时间也存在延滞性,且随降雨强度增加而增大,但与雨前干燥期关系不明显;树干茎流终止时间先于林外雨终止时间,且主要与降雨量级有关,降雨量级越小,终止时间越早.     

Nutrient content of incident rainfall,throughfall and stemflow in a Nigerian secondary lowland rainforest

Abstract. Nutrient content of rainfall, throughfall and stemflow was studied over one year in the open and under the crowns of three tree species in a secondary rain forest at Ile‐Ife, Nigeria. Throughfall and stemflow comprised 78.8 % and 5.2 % respectively; 16.0 % of the incident rainfall was intercepted by the forest canopy. The concentrations of various nutrient elements in throughfall and stemflow were higher than those of incident rainfall. In throughfall and stemflow potassium concentration was highest and that of ammonium nitrogen was the lowest. Only calcium and sodium concentrations showed significant monthly variation in incident rainfall. Ca, Mg, K. Cu and P showed significant monthly variation in throughfall and stemflow. The concentrations of the elements were highest during the heavy‐rain months (May‐September). High concentrations of some of the elements were recorded also in November, the last rain month and the beginning of the dry season. The concentration of these elements in stemflow and throughfall was affected by tree species. The highest quantity of each element was deposited in the forest via throughfall followed by incident precipitation and the lowest via stemflow. The tree species affected the quantities of these elements by the volume of their stemflow and throughfall and the concentration of the various elements herein. Total nutrient concentration was much higher than available (dissolved) nutrient concentration. This was very pronounced with micronutrients.     

Communities of insect herbivores foraging on saplings versus mature trees of Pourouma bicolor (Cecropiaceae) in Panama

The arthropod fauna of 25 saplings and of three conspecific mature trees of Pourouma bicolor (Cecropiaceae) was surveyed for 12 months in a tropical wet forest in Panama, with particular reference to insect herbivores. A construction crane erected at the study site provided access to tree foliage in the upper canopy. A similar area of foliage (ca. 370 m²) was surveyed from both saplings and trees, but samples obtained from the latter included 3 times as much young foliage as from the former. Arthropods, including herbivores and leaf-chewing insects with a proven ability to feed on the foliage of P. bicolor were 1.6, 2.5 and 2.9 times as abundant on the foliage of trees as on that of saplings. The species richness of herbivores and proven chewers were 1.5 (n=145 species) and 3.5 (n=21) times higher on trees than on saplings, respectively. Many herbivore species preferred or were restricted to one or other of the host stages. Host stage and young foliage area in the samples explained 52% of the explained variance in the spatial distribution of herbivore species. Pseudo-replication in the two sampling universes, the saplings and trees studied, most likely decreased the magnitude of differences apparent between host stages in this forest. The higher availability of food resources, such as young foliage, in the canopy than in the understorey, perhaps combined with other factors such as resource quality and enemy-free space, may generate complex gradients of abundance and species richness of insect herbivores in wet closed tropical forests.     

Water and element input into native, agri- and silvicultural ecosystems of the Brazilian savanna

The interaction of rain water with the vegetation canopy results in changes of the water quantity and quality. We examined these canopy effects in different ecosystems of the Brazilian savanna, the Cerrado. The ecosystems were 20 yr-old Pinus caribaea Morelet plantations (PI), productive (PP) and degraded Brachiaria decumbens Stapf pastures (DP), continuous corn-soybean rotation (CC), and native typical cerrado (CE). We collected rainfall, throughfall, and, in PI and CE, stemflow from three plots of each ecosystem. Dry deposition and canopy leaching were estimated with a Na-tracer method. Between May 1997 and April 1999, the mean annual rainfall was 1656 mm of which 145 mm fell during the dry season (May–September). The throughfall percentage of the rainfall increased in the order, PI (75–85%) < CC (76–89%) < CE (89–100%) < PP (90–100%) < DP (99–100%); stemflow was < 1% of the rainfall. The volume-weighted mean (VWM) pH in rainfall was higher in the dry (6.5) than in the rainy season (5.4). The VWM pH in throughfall decreased in the order, CC (rainy season: 5.9/dry season: 6.2) > PP (5.5/6.0) > CE (5.2/6.0) > DP (5.2/5.6) > PI (4.8/5.7). The rainfall deposition of the dry season contributed one third of the annual element input with rainfall because of higher element concentrations than in the rainy season. The mean Na deposition ratios, i.e. the ratio of throughfall (+ stemflow) to rainfall deposition as a measure for dry deposition, increased in the order, CE (1.5) = CC (1.5) < PP (1.7) < PI (1.9) < (DP 2.1). Total deposition (rainfall + dry deposition) accounted for 104–164% of the K and Ca fertilizer application in PP and for 6.1–12% of the K, Ca, and Mg fertilizer application in CC. The P concentrations were below the detection limit of 0.2 mg L^–1 in all samples. Net canopy uptake, i.e. a smaller throughfall(+ stemflow) than rainfall + dry deposition, of Ca, K, Mg, S, Cu, and Zn in at least one of CE, PI, DP, and PP indicate that plant growth may be limited in part by these nutrients. During the vegetation period, between 28 and 50% of the applied K and Ca were leached from the canopy in PP and between 8.7 and 17% of the applied K, Ca, Mg, and S in CC. Our results demonstrate that PI causes larger water losses and enhanced acid inputs to the soil compared with all other ecosystems. However, the PI and pasture canopies scavenge more nutrients from the atmosphere than CE and CC.     

干旱绿洲区枸杞林地面节肢动物功能群结构季节分布特征

为了解枸杞林地面节肢动物功能群结构季节分布特征,以宁夏绿洲枸杞林为研究对象,于2018年的春、夏、秋季节,采用陷阱诱捕法,调查了地面节肢动物功能群季节分布特征及其与环境因子之间的关系。结果显示:(1)枸杞林地面节肢动物功能群包括植食性、捕食性、腐食性和杂食性动物,个体数分别占6.31%、86.75%、2.01%和4.89%,其中以捕食性动物为主。(2)植食性地面节肢动物个体数和生物量表现为春季显著高于秋季,夏季居中;类群数表现为夏季显著高于秋季,春季居中。捕食性地面节肢动物生物量表现为夏季和秋季显著高于春季;个体数和类群数在不同季节间均无显著差异。腐食性地面节肢动物个体数、生物量和类群数在不同季节间均无显著差异。杂食性地面节肢动物个体数和类群数表现为春季显著高于夏季,秋季居中;生物量在不同季节间均无显著差异。(3)相关分析表明,捕食性地面节肢动物个体数与土壤含水量呈正相关关系,腐食性地面节肢动物个体数与土壤全磷呈正相关关系,杂食性地面节肢动物与土壤全氮呈正相关关系。但植食性地面节肢动物个体数则与土壤含水量呈负相关关系,杂食性地面节肢动物个体数与土壤温度和土壤全碳呈负相关关系。(4)pRDA分析表明,土壤含水量是影响地面节肢动物功能群结构季节分布的主要环境因子。结论:随着季节更替,宁夏干旱绿洲区枸杞林地面节肢动物的功能群组成差异较大,功能多样性差异较小。说明每个功能群的个体数和类群数对季节变化敏感,但功能多样性较稳定。     

The chemistry and flux of throughfall and stemflow in subalpine balsam fir forests

The fluxes of water and chemicals in throughfall and stemflow of three subalpine balsam fir forests of New Hampshire, USA were measured. The three fir stands were highly dissimilar in structural characteristics, serving as a test of the importance of stand structure on these fluxes. The sum of throughfall and stemflow water exceeded incident precipitation by more than 18 to 29%. This difference was attributed to the unmeasured input of cloud droplets impacted on canopy surfaces. The principal effect of stand structure was a positive relationship between stand density and stemflow. The flux of NH⁺₄, Na⁺, SO⁼₄ and Cl⁻ in stemflow was also significantly higher in the most dense stand. The fir canopy effects on capture and chemical alterations of elements were compared with analogous behavior of a nearby deciduous forest. There were several major contrasts, the most striking of which was a flux/canopy pool ratio (leachability index) in the hardwood canopy ranging from two to 32 times higher than in the fir canopy.     

太岳山不同郁闭度油松人工林降水分配特征

利用2011年5-9月生长季观测的30场降雨数据,分析了山西太岳山不同郁闭度下油松人工林林冠截留、穿透雨以及树干茎流与降雨量的关系,以及林冠截留过程的特点.结果表明:(1)实验观测期间,该地区降雨总量为634.79mm,单次平均降雨量为21.16mm,单次最大降雨量为58.15mm,单次最小降雨量为0.54mm.其中,8月份的降雨总量最大,为190.77mm,6月份的降雨总量最小,为41.81mm.(2)郁闭度为0.8的油松人工林林冠截留量与降雨量呈一元线性关系,郁闭度为0.7、0.6和0.5均呈幂函数关系;对于各郁闭度的油松人工林,其林冠截留率与降雨量均呈对数函数关系;穿透雨量、树干茎流量与降雨量均呈明显的一元线性关系,穿透雨量和树干茎流量都随着降雨量的增加而增加.(3)不同郁闭度油松人工林之间林冠截留、穿透雨和树干茎流不同,总的趋势为随着郁闭度的减小,林冠截留量减小,穿透雨量增大,树干茎流量增大.林冠截留量与郁闭度表现出正相关关系,而穿透雨量、树干茎流量都与郁闭度表现出负相关关系.(4)各郁闭度林冠截留量、穿透雨量和树干茎流量的月动态变化与总降水量的月变化基本一致.     

祁连山典型灌丛降雨截留特征

基于2010年6月至10月的野外试验数据,研究了祁连山金露梅、高山柳、沙棘和鬼箭锦鸡儿灌丛降雨截留特征,分析了降雨量和雨强对灌丛降雨截留过程的影响。结果表明:试验期间共降雨298.6 mm,在降雨量<2.1 mm时,降雨被全部截留,实际发生穿透和茎流的降雨为283.1 mm;金露梅灌丛穿透雨量、茎流量和截留量分别为175.8 mm(62.0%)、9.5 mm(3.4%)和62.0 mm(34.6%),高山柳为179.8 mm(63.5%)、9.1 mm(3.2%)和63.5 mm(33.3%),沙棘分别为148.1mm(52.3%)、22.5mm(8.0%)和52.3 mm(39.7%),鬼箭锦鸡儿分别为170.4 mm(60.2%)、11.8 mm(4.2%)和60.2 mm(35.6%);灌丛穿透雨量、茎流量和截留量均与降雨量呈显著线性正相关(P<0.001);穿透率、茎流率和截留率与降雨量呈指数函数关系(P<0.05);平均雨强与截留率关系以指数函数拟合最好(P<0.05)。在降雨性质相同的情况下,植被形态特征是影响灌丛降雨截留的重要因素。     

Water inputs across a tropical montane landscape in Veracruz,Mexico: synergistic effects of land cover,rain and fog seasonality,and interannual precipitation variability

Land‐cover change can alter the spatiotemporal distribution of water inputs to mountain ecosystems, an important control on land‐surface and land‐atmosphere hydrologic fluxes. In eastern Mexico, we examined the influence of three widespread land‐cover types, montane cloud forest, coffee agroforestry, and cleared areas, on total and net water inputs to soil. Stand structural characteristics, as well as rain, fog, stemflow, and throughfall (water that falls through the canopy) water fluxes were measured across 11 sites during wet and dry seasons from 2005 to 2008. Land‐cover type had a significant effect on annual and seasonal net throughfall (NTF <0=canopy water retention plus canopy evaporation; NTF >0=fog water deposition). Forest canopies retained and/or lost to evaporation (i.e. NTF<0) five‐ to 11‐fold more water than coffee agroforests. Moreover, stemflow was fourfold higher under coffee shade than forest trees. Precipitation seasonality and phenological patterns determined the magnitude of these land‐cover differences, as well as their implications for the hydrologic cycle. Significant negative relationships were found between NTF and tree leaf area index (R²=0.38, P<0.002), NTF and stand basal area (R²=0.664, P<0.002), and stemflow and epiphyte loading (R²=0.414, P<0.001). These findings indicate that leaf and epiphyte surface area reductions associated with forest conversion decrease canopy water retention/evaporation, thereby increasing throughfall and stemflow inputs to soil. Interannual precipitation variability also altered patterns of water redistribution across this landscape. Storms and hurricanes resulted in little difference in forest‐coffee wet season NTF, while El Niño Southern Oscillation was associated with a twofold increase in dry season rain and fog throughfall water deposition. In montane headwater regions, changes in water delivery to canopies and soils may affect infiltration, runoff, and evapotranspiration, with implications for provisioning (e.g. water supply) and regulating (e.g. flood mitigation) ecosystem services.     

荒漠灌丛内降雨和土壤水分再分配

通过对降雨再分配,荒漠灌丛可改变降雨在灌丛内的水平空间分布,进而影响植被冠层下土壤水分的空间响应.本文以腾格里沙漠东南缘人工植被区柠条和油蒿灌丛为研究对象,分析了灌丛干扰下的降雨再分配过程及灌丛下土壤水分的空间响应.结果表明: 柠条和油蒿灌丛的穿透水、树干茎流分别占降雨量的74.4%、11.3%和61.8%、5.5%.次降雨过程中,柠条和油蒿穿透水空间变异性均较大,平均变异系数分别为0.25和0.30;由于可以将更多的降雨以树干茎流形式在根部富集,柠条主干基部土壤湿润锋深度明显比冠层其余位置深,而油蒿仅在大降雨事件时才较为明显.灌丛对降雨的再分配作用改变了降雨达到地表时的空间分配,致使冠层下土壤湿润锋深度呈现明显的不均一性.     

Nutrient content of throughfall and stemflow in fertilized and irrigatedPinus resinosa ait. Stands

Summary The P, K, Ca, and Mg contents of throughfall and stemflow from K-fertilized and/or irrigated plots from adjacent sites differing in productivity in 39-year-oldPinus resinosa plantations were determined. The amounts of these elements leached from the tree canopies (throughfall plus stemflow) during April through October varied significantly according to site and treatment. These amounts ranged in kg per ha from −0.03 to 0.23 for P, 2.05 to 8.78 for K, 1.55 to 3.63 for Ca, and 0.02 to 0.44 for Mg. Leaching of P, K, and Ca from the trees was usually greater on the more productive site than on the poorer one. In general, the fertilization treatment was correlated with increasing amounts of P, K, and Ca leached, whereas the irrigation treatment was correlated with decreasing amounts of P, K, and Ca leached. For Mg, leaching was consistently greater on the poorer site than on the more productive one; further, it was greatest on the control plots and least on plots both fertilized and irrigated. Gross precipitation of 61.26 cm contained P, K, Ca, and Mg in amounts of 0.33, 0.84, 2.96, and 0.83 kg per ha, respectively. Volumes of both throughfall and stemflow were significantly affected by site conditions. Although throughfall was not affected by treatment, stemflow varied significantly according to plot treatment and was also highly and positively correlated with tree diameter. Stemflow accounted for about 2 per cent of the total water volume collected beneath the canopies, and contained, on a relative basis, considerably less P, an equivalent amount of K, twice as much Mg, and four times as much Ca as throughfall. Contribution of the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Forest Service, USDA, and Department of Silviculture and Forest Influences, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, New York, 13210.     

Rainfall partitioning into throughfall and stemflow and associated nutrient fluxes: land use impacts in a lower montane tropical region of Panama

Land-use change alters catchment hydrology by influencing the quality and quantity of partitioned rainfall. We compared rainfall partitioning (throughfall, stemflow and interception) and nutrient concentrations in rainfall, throughfall and stemflow in three land-use types [primary forest (PF), secondary forest (SF) and agriculture (A)] in Panama. Measurements of throughfall were highly variable which may have masked seasonal and land use differences but it was clear that throughfall at agricultural sites made up a larger proportion of gross precipitation than at forest sites. Of incident precipitation, 94% became throughfall in agriculture sites while 83 and 81% of gross precipitation became throughfall in PF and SF, respectively. The size of the precipitation event was the main driver of variation in throughfall and stemflow. Consistent patterns in nutrient cycling were also difficult to identify. Vegetation has a vital role in delivering nutrients as throughfall deposition of K was often larger than precipitation deposition. A canopy budget model indicated that canopy exchange was often more dominant than dry deposition. Throughfall was generally enriched with nutrients, especially K and Mg, with enrichment factors of up to 17 and 5 for K and Mg, respectively, in PF. In contrast, Ca was sometimes taken up by the canopy. Values of nutrient deposition were high (with up to 15, 3, 30 and 15 kg ha^?1 month^?1 in stand deposition of Ca, Mg, K and Na, respectively in PF), possibly due to the slash-and-burn agricultural practices in the area or marine inputs. Throughfall and stemflow are vital sources of nutrients in these ecosystems.     

Insect herbivory, organic matter deposition and effects on belowground organic matter fluxes in a central European oak forest

Apart from the forest floor, the canopy of forested ecosystems functions as the second most important source for dissolved and particulate fractions of organic and inorganic C and N compounds. However, under mass outbreak situations of insect herbivores this flux path of organic matter is considerably intensified clearly exceeding C and N fluxes from the forest floor. In this paper we report on herbivore-altered C and N fluxes from the canopy to the forest floor and effects on forest floor nutrient fluxes during severe defoliating herbivory of the winter moth (Operophtera brumata) and the mottled umber moth (Eranis defoliaria) in an oak forest in Germany. Over the course of 6.5 months we followed the C and N fluxes with bulk deposition, throughfall solution, insect frass deposits (green-fall together with insect faeces) and with forest floor solution in an 117-yr-old oak (Quercus petraea) forest. Compared to the control, herbivore defoliation significantly enhanced throughfall inputs of total and dissolved organic carbon and nitrogen by a factor of 3 and 2.5 (for TOC and DOC), and by 1.4 and 1.3 times (for TNb and DNb), respectively. Frass plus green-fall C and N fluxes peaked in May with 592 kg C?ha^?1 and 33.5 kg N?ha^?1 representing 79.6% (for C) and 78.3% (for N) of the total C and N input over 2.5 months. The quantitative and qualitative C and N input via faeces and litter deposition significantly differ between the insect affected and non-affected site. However, the C and N fluxes with throughfall did not significantly correlate with forest floor leachates. In this context, forest floor fluxes of TOC, DOC and NO₃-N were significantly lower at the infested site compared to the control, whereas fluxes of NH₄-N together with DON were significantly higher. The study demonstrates the importance of linking the population and associated frass dynamics of herbivorous insects with the cycling of nutrients and organic matter in forest ecosystems, highlighting the remarkable alterations in the timing, amounts and nature of organic matter dynamics on the ecosystem level. Consequently, the ecology of phytophagous insects allows partly to explain temporal-spatial alterations in nutrient cycling and thus ecosystem functioning.