基于生物信息学分析从Streptomyces albofaciens JCM 4342中发现2,3-二羟基苯甲酸酯-L-丝氨酸脱水三聚体和二聚体天然产物（英文）

【背景】铁是细菌生长的基本元素,而三价铁在自然水环境中几乎无法溶解。细菌已经进化出产生各种铁载体的能力,以促进铁的吸收。对于链霉菌,其特有的铁载体是去铁胺,同时它们也可以产生其他结构的铁载体,如Ceolichelin、白霉素、肠杆菌素(Enterobactin)和Griseobactin。【目的】揭示链霉菌中铁载体生物合成基因簇(Biosynthetic Gene Clusters,BGCs)的分布特点和基因簇特征,并探索其所合成铁载体的化合物结构。【方法】利用生物信息学工具系统地分析308个具有全基因组序列信息的链霉菌中的铁载体生物合成基因簇,并用色谱和波谱方法分离和表征肠杆菌素相关天然产物。【结果】发现Streptomyces albofaciens JCM 4342和其他少数菌株同时含有一个缺少2,3-二羟基苯甲酸(2,3-DHB)生物合成基因的孤立的肠杆菌素生物合成基因簇和另外一个推测可合成Griseobactin的基因簇。从S. albofaciens JCM 4342发酵液中鉴定出4个肠杆菌素衍生的天然产物,包括链状2,3-二羟基苯甲酸酯-L-丝氨酸(2,3-DHBS)的三聚体和二聚体以及它们的脱水产物。【结论】2个基因簇间存在一种特别的协同生物合成机制。推测是Griseobactin基因簇负责合成2,3-DHB,而孤立的肠杆菌素基因簇编码的生物合成酶可夺取该底物,进而完成上述4种肠杆菌素衍生天然产物的生物合成。     

非核糖体肽Skyllamycin B生物合成中I型硫酯酶底物杂泛性的初步研究

[背景] Skyllamycins是一类从链霉菌中发现的具有血小板生长因子抑制和生物膜抑制作用的非核糖体肽类,其环肽环合反应是由非核糖体肽合成酶中的硫酯酶功能域催化完成。[目的] 克隆和表达Skyllamycin非核糖体肽合成酶最后一个模块中的硫酯酶（Skyxy-TE）基因,合成Skyxy-TE底物类似物,通过体外催化实验表征Skyxy-TE的底物杂泛性。[方法] 采用Ligation Independent Cloning（LIC）方法,从一株含有Skyllamycin B生物合成基因簇的链霉菌Streptomyces sp.PKU-MA01239中克隆和表达skyxy-TE,通过镍离子柱亲和层析纯化Skyxy-TE。运用固相多肽合成法合成2个底物类似物1和2,进行Skyxy-TE的体外催化实验。[结果] 通过对Skyxy-TE的表达纯化,获得了纯度较好的可溶性蛋白;通过固相多肽合成,得到了能够模拟Skyllamycin B底物类似物的化合物1和2,硫酯酶蛋白体外催化化合物1和2得到了化合物3和4,化合物3和4通过核磁共振和高分辨质谱确认为环肽。[结论] Skyllamycin B生物合成中Skyxy-TE表现出一定的底物杂泛性,可以识别底物类似物催化环化反应,该研究为将来利用化学-酶联法制备更多环肽类似物提供了依据。     

珠江口沉积物来源链霉菌SCSIO 40020中bafilomycins的鉴定及其生物合成基因簇的异源表达

[目的] 从珠江口沉积物来源的菌株SCSIO 40020中分离bafilomycins,并对其生物合成基因簇进行克隆和异源表达研究。[方法] 通过分析菌株SCSIO 40020的16S rRNA基因序列并构建系统发育树以鉴定菌种,以柱层析法和制备色谱法对次级代谢产物进行分离纯化,借助波谱学手段完成单体化合物的结构鉴定,采用生物信息学分析定位bafilomycins的生物合成基因簇,通过筛选菌株SCSIO 40020基因组的细菌人工染色体文库和接合转移将bafilomycins生物合成基因簇导入3种链霉菌进行异源表达,利用高效液相色谱检测异源表达菌株的发酵产物。[结果] 菌株SCSIO 40020被鉴定为链霉菌属菌株,从其发酵产物中分离鉴定了2个单体化合物bafilomycins A₁和D。克隆了链霉菌SCSIO 40020中bafilomycins的生物合成基因簇并推导了其生物合成途径,在3种链霉菌中表达产生了bafilomycins。[结论] 从珠江口环境中获得了一株产生bafilomycins的链霉菌SCSIO 40020,成功建立了该菌株次级代谢产物生物合成基因簇的异源表达体系,并首次在链霉菌Streptomyces lividans SBT18、Streptomyces coelicolor M1154和Streptomyces albus J1074中进行了表达,获得了bafilomycins,为后续bafilomycins结构类似物的生产和链霉菌SCSIO 40020中新结构活性化合物的挖掘奠定了基础。     

一种适用于链霉菌异源合成基因簇同框缺失的高效方法

【背景】对抗生素生物合成途径的阐明有助于提高目标化合物的产量并开发具有更高活性的新化合物。基因的同框缺失是天然产物生物合成研究的常规手段,通过分析突变菌株积累的中间产物,可以帮助推导天然产物的合成途径及相关基因的功能。天然产物生物合成基因簇的大小一般在20 kb以上,对每个基因进行同框缺失耗时耗力,因此,优化链霉菌来源的基因同框缺失的方法有重要的意义。【目的】基于PCR-targeting重新设计了一套在链霉菌柯斯文库质粒上进行基因同框缺失的方法,实现链霉菌基因在大肠杆菌中快速、高效的基因同框缺失的技术体系。【方法】使用氨苄青霉素抗性基因bla作为PCR-targeting DNA片段的筛选标记,同时使用体外的Pac I酶切和酶连系统代替体内的Flp/FRT系统来介导同框缺失的构建。【结果】利用这种方法,在6 d内完成了米多霉素生物合成基因簇中14个基因的同框缺失。【结论】此方法与传统的PCR-targeting方法相比,构建同框缺失载体的效率明显提高;Pac I识别序列在链霉菌基因组上的稀有性使得此方法在构建抗生素生物合成基因簇必需基因的同框缺失载体上具有普适性。     

萘醌-氧吲哚生物碱coprisidins生物合成途径的研究

[目的] 新颖结构的天然萘醌-氧吲哚类生物碱coprisidins（A和B）分离自昆虫肠道相关链霉菌,具有预防癌症的活性。作为首例具有萘醌-氧吲哚骨架的生物碱,对其独特生物合成机理的研究可为II型聚酮类化合物生物合成途径提供新的认知。[方法] 本研究对coprisidins的产生菌Streptomyces sp.SNU607进行全基因组测序,并根据测序结果的生物信息学分析初步定位coprisidins的生物合成基因簇;通过基因敲除以及异源表达手段确定coprisidins的生物合成基因簇;基于体内遗传学实验与生物信息学分析初步推导coprisidins的生物合成途径。[结果] Streptomyces sp.SNU607中有23个基因簇可能参与次级代谢,其中4个基因簇与聚酮合酶（PKS）相关;通过基因敲除与异源表达实验,本研究证实1个II型PKS负责coprisidins的生物合成;基于生物信息学分析,我们推测copH/I/M/O/N构成了1个基因盒,并负责起始单元丁酰CoA的合成;KS_β（CopB）的序列比对表明coprisidins的II型PKS系统更倾向于合成C20的初始聚酮链。[结论] Coprisidins的萘醌-吲哚结构是由II型PKSs催化形成,我们推测丁酰CoA是coprisidins聚酮骨架的起始单元,在最小PKS、聚酮酶、环化酶的催化下先形成类似蒽环的四环系统,随后在后修饰酶与氧化重排的作用下生成萘醌-氧吲哚骨架。本研究为进一步探究萘醌-氧吲哚类生物碱的生物合成机制奠定了基础,同时增加了II型PKSs合成产物的结构多样性。     

红花石蒜苯丙氨酸解氨酶催化合成N-甲基-L-苯丙氨酸

[背景] N-甲基-L-苯丙氨酸是一种N-烷基化芳香氨基酸,是重要的手性合成单元/中间体/组成成分,在医药、农业、食品等领域有重要应用价值的代谢产物中广泛存在。N-烷基化芳香氨基酸的合成与制备仍具有巨大的挑战。[目的] 在研究加兰他敏的生物合成过程中,我们从产加兰他敏的红花石蒜中克隆并表征苯丙氨酸解氨酶LrPAL3。LrPAL3催化区域及对映选择性的氢胺化反应得到L-苯丙氨酸。通过生物信息学分析,推测LrPAL3可能催化反式-肉桂酸的一步N-甲基胺化反应得到N-甲基-L-苯丙氨酸。[方法] 将反式-肉桂酸与甲胺,以及表达LrPAL3的大肠杆菌全细胞一起孵育。HPLC-DAD及HRESIMS分析表明,上述反应产物为N-甲基-苯丙氨酸。为确定该产物的立体构型,将上述催化反应放大,通过分离纯化得到该酶催化反应产物。[结果] 该化合物的氢谱数据及比旋光数据与N-甲基-L-苯丙氨酸标准品的数据一致。由此说明,LrPAL3能够催化反式-肉桂酸和甲胺发生N-烷基胺化反应,区域和立体专一性地生成N-甲基-L-苯丙氨酸。[结论] 本研究为手性N-烷基氨基酸的不对称合成提供了一种全新的绿色、高效生物催化剂。通过对LrPAL3的蛋白质定向进化及代谢工程,将会进一步扩展LrPAL3的催化反应范围,以多种N-烷基胺类及取代的苯基丙烯酸为底物,实现手性N-烷基-芳基氨基酸的高效区域及立体选择性生物合成。     

卡伍尔氏链霉菌NA4的Ⅱ型聚酮基因簇的靶向激活及其产物鉴定

【目的】以基因组信息为导向,定向激活海洋来源卡伍尔氏链霉菌（Streptomyces cavourensis） NA4中沉默的Ⅱ型聚酮类次级代谢产物生物合成基因簇,鉴定新产生的次级代谢产物的结构和抑菌活性。【方法】通过添加启动子和敲除负调控基因的方法激活实验室培养条件下沉默或低表达的生物合成基因簇,并完成目标化合物的分离与纯化,通过电喷雾质谱（electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry,ESI-MS）和核磁共振（nuclear magnetic resonance,NMR）数据分析鉴定目标化合物结构,对目标化合物进行抑菌活性鉴定,基于生物信息学信息推导化合物的生物合成途径。【结果】根据基因组生物信息学分析,从海洋来源链霉菌Streptomyces cavourensis NA4中选取一个编码PKSⅡ型次级代谢产物的生物合成基因簇开展研究,成功激活目标基因簇,从中分离到1个PKSⅡ型化合物,推导了其生物合成途径并进行了抑菌活性鉴定。【结论】基因组导向下的天然产物挖掘,可以目标明确地分离产物,充分挖掘链霉菌编码次级代谢产物的潜力。     

珊瑚来源真菌Parengyodontium album SCSIO SX7W11中聚酮化合物的发现及其生物合成途径分析

海洋来源真菌的天然产物因其独特的结构与生物学活性而备受关注,而利用基因组信息对其代谢产物进行深入挖掘也成为研究策略之一。[目的] 本文以一株南海珊瑚来源的真菌Parengyodontium album SCSIO SX7W11为目标菌株,挖掘其生产聚酮类化合物的潜能。[方法] 本研究利用Illumina Miseq技术对SX7W11菌株进行全基因组扫描测序,运用生物信息学手段对其基因组的生物合成基因簇进行预测和基因功能注释,挖掘可能产生新颖聚酮化合物的基因簇。对SX7W11进行放大发酵后,利用正相色谱、中压反相色谱、Sephadex LH-20凝胶色谱、HPLC半制备等分离手段分离纯化出单体化合物。再利用高分辨质谱（HR-ESI-MS）、¹H NMR、¹³C NMR、X-ray单晶衍射等波谱手段确定化合物的结构,并根据生物合成基因簇对化合物的生物合成途径进行推导。[结果] 全基因组扫描测序结果显示,P.album SCSIO SX7W11基因组大小为34.0 Mb,含有24个生物合成基因簇,包括6个聚酮合酶基因簇以及3个萜烯合酶基因簇。从发酵产物中分离鉴定到3个聚酮类化合物：emodin（1）、alternaphenol B（2）和sydowinin A（3）,其中化合物3获得了单晶结构数据。通过生物信息学方法从菌株基因组中定位到了sydowinin A的生物合成基因簇。结合文献对emodin（1）、alternaphenol B（2）和sydowinin A（3）的生物合成途径进行了分析。[结论] 本研究通过基因组挖掘及培养基优化,发现1株珊瑚来源的真菌P.album SCSIO SX7W11具有生产sydowinins类聚酮类化合物的能力,为该类化合物生物合成机制深入研究奠定了基础。     

Streptomyces sp.NO1W98中杀黑星菌素的分离和生物合成基因簇的鉴定

[目的] 分离Streptomyces sp.NO1W98中的杀黑星菌素并鉴定其生物合成基因簇。[方法] 利用有机溶剂萃取法对Streptomyces sp.NO1W98放大规模发酵产物进行提取;以正向、反向色谱柱层析进行化合物的分离纯化;借助波谱学手段进行单体化合物的结构鉴定;采用Illumina Hiseq技术进行基因组序列测定,对得到的序列进行生物信息学分析、注释并定位杀黑星菌素的生物合成基因簇vtd,利用基于PCR-targeting的遗传操作系统构建vtd内相关基因的阻断突变株,同时利用pSET152AKE进行基因回补,并分析与野生菌株的发酵产物差异。[结果] 从NO1W98发酵产物提取物中初步分离鉴定了2个大环内酯类化合物杀黑星菌素A（1）和B（2）;NO1W98的基因组大小约为11.6 Mb,蕴涵49个次级代谢产物生物合成基因簇,其中scaffold 3上的Region 3.3可能负责杀黑星菌素的生物合成;基因阻断和回补实验初步鉴定了杀黑星菌素的生物合成基因簇,包含6个骨架基因、5个转运基因、2个调控基因以及9个后修饰基因。[结论] 杀黑星菌素的分离、结构鉴定和基因簇的鉴定以及生物合成途径的推导为其遗传改造和工程菌株的构建奠定了分子基础。     

染色体DNA琼脂糖包埋法辅助的ExoCET技术克隆放线菌天然产物生物合成基因簇

【目的】本研究旨在通过将琼脂糖包埋染色体DNA的方法与ExoCET重组技术相结合,建立放线菌天然产物生物合成基因簇的捕获方法。然后将克隆基因簇导入通用底盘宿主中,实现目标生物合成基因簇的异源表达。【方法】首先,利用低熔点琼脂糖包埋技术制备菌株的染色体基因组总DNA,再用限制性内切酶消化含有染色体DNA的琼脂块,获得线性化的DNA样品;然后利用ExoCET重组技术,以p15A线性载体片段将目标基因簇线性片段进行捕获;再通过PCR-targeting的方法向目标质粒中引入所需的接合转移DNA元件。接着,将改造质粒通过接合转移导入到Streptomyces coelicolor M1252宿主中,获得不同的重组菌株。最后,对不同的菌株进行发酵并提取化合物,最后进行活性检测以及质谱检测。【结果】通过该方法,从菌株S.lincolnensisNRR2936中成功获得了林可霉素生物合成基因簇(lmb-BGC),从菌株Nonomuraea nitratireducens WYY166^T中克隆得到了2个核糖体肽类化合物的生物合成基因簇(nioblantin,niob-BGC和nitblantin,nitb-BGC),并实现了lmb-BGC在天蓝色链霉菌M1252中的成功表达。【结论】本研究通过将低熔点琼脂糖包埋技术与ExoCET重组技术进行合理整合,定向克隆得到了林可霉素以及2个新颖的羊毛硫肽类化合物的生物合成基因簇。然后,分别对重组质粒改造后,在天蓝色链霉菌M1252宿主中进行表达,分别获得重组菌株MJX01、MJX02和MJX04。最后,利用质谱以及活性测试的手段对发酵提取物进行了检测,确定了林可霉素生物合成基因簇在天蓝色链霉菌M1252中成功表达。本研究为通过基因簇克隆和异源表达发掘新化合物奠定了基础。     

Diversity of siderophore genes encoding biosynthesis of 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid in Aeromonas spp.

Most species of the genus Aeromonas produce the siderophore amonabactin, although two species produce enterobactin, the siderophore of many enteric bacteria. Both siderophores contain 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,3-DHB). Siderophore genes (designated aebC, -E, -B and -A, for aeromonad enterobactin biosynthesis) that complemented mutations in the enterobactin genes of the Escherichia coli 2,3-DHB operon, entCEBA(P15), were cloned from an enterobactin-producing isolate of the Aeromonas spp. Mapping of the aeromonad genes suggested a gene order of aebCEBA, identical to that of the E. coli 2,3-DHB operon. Gene probes for the aeromonad aebCE genes and for amoA (the entC-equivalent gene previously cloned from an amonabactin-producing Aeromonas spp.) did not cross-hybridize. Gene probes for the E. coli 2,3-DHB genes entCEBA did not hybridize with Aeromonas spp. DNA. Therefore, in the genus Aeromonas, 2,3-DHB synthesis is encoded by two distinct gene groups; one (amo) is present in the amonabactin-producers, while the other (aeb) occurs in the enterobactin-producers. Each of these systems differs from (but is functionally related to) the E. coli 2,3-DHB operon. These genes may have diverged from an ancestral group of 2,3-DHB genes.     

基于基因组挖掘的农抗120活性成分制霉菌素和丰加霉素的发现和鉴定

【目的】分析刺孢吸水链霉菌北京变种(农抗120产生菌)基因组和次级代谢产物组分,研究并鉴定农抗120产生菌中未被发现的活性组分。【方法】利用antiSMASH在线分析农抗120产生菌Streptomyces hygrospinosusvar.beijingensis基因组信息,锁定可能的制霉菌素和丰加霉素生物合成基因簇。利用HPLC和LC-MS等分析方法对农抗120产生菌发酵产物进行分析,同时利用制霉菌素和丰加霉素标准品作为对照,以鉴定该菌株代谢组分中的次级代谢产物。此外,通过构建目标基因簇大片段缺失突变株,并对所得突变株发酵产物进行检测,以确定生物合成基因簇与目的代谢产物的对应关系。【结果】本研究综合利用基因组序列分析、基因缺失突变株构建以及代谢产物检测方法,鉴定了农抗120产生菌中制霉菌素和丰加霉素两种活性成分,并确定了负责这些化合物合成的基因簇。【结论】本研究所构建的多重基因簇失活突变株为挖掘刺孢吸水链霉菌北京变种更多的天然次级代谢产物奠定了基础。     

Phytoplankton trigger the production of cryptic metabolites in the marine actinobacterium Salinispora tropica

Filamentous members of the phylum Actinobacteria are a remarkable source of natural products with pharmaceutical potential. The discovery of novel molecules from these organisms is, however, hindered because most of the biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) encoding these secondary metabolites are cryptic or silent and are referred to as orphan BGCs. While co-culture has proven to be a promising approach to unlock the biosynthetic potential of many microorganisms by activating the expression of these orphan BGCs, it still remains an underexplored technique. The marine actinobacterium Salinispora tropica, for instance, produces valuable compounds such as the anti-cancer molecule salinosporamide but half of its putative BGCs are still orphan. Although previous studies have used marine heterotrophs to induce orphan BGCs in Salinispora, its co-culture with marine phototrophs has yet to be investigated. Following the observation of an antimicrobial activity against a range of phytoplankton by S. tropica, we here report that the photosynthate released by photosynthetic primary producers influences its biosynthetic capacities with production of cryptic molecules and the activation of orphan BGCs. Our work, using an approach combining metabolomics and proteomics, pioneers the use of phototrophs as a promising strategy to accelerate the discovery of novel natural products from marine actinobacteria.     

Antarctic desert soil bacteria exhibit high novel natural product potential,evaluated through long-read genome sequencing and comparative genomics

Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria are important producers of bioactive natural products (NP), and these phyla dominate in the arid soils of Antarctica, where metabolic adaptations influence survival under harsh conditions. Biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) which encode NPs, are typically long and repetitious high G + C regions difficult to sequence with short-read technologies. We sequenced 17 Antarctic soil bacteria from multi-genome libraries, employing the long-read PacBio platform, to optimize capture of BGCs and to facilitate a comprehensive analysis of their NP capacity. We report 13 complete bacterial genomes of high quality and contiguity, representing 10 different cold-adapted genera including novel species. Antarctic BGCs exhibited low similarity to known compound BGCs (av. 31%), with an abundance of terpene, non-ribosomal peptide and polyketide-encoding clusters. Comparative genome analysis was used to map BGC variation between closely related strains from geographically distant environments. Results showed the greatest biosynthetic differences to be in a psychrotolerant Streptomyces strain, as well as a rare Actinobacteria genus, Kribbella, while two other Streptomyces spp. were surprisingly similar to known genomes. Streptomyces and Kribbella BGCs were predicted to encode antitumour, antifungal, antibacterial and biosurfactant-like compounds, and the synthesis of NPs with antibacterial, antifungal and surfactant properties was confirmed through bioactivity assays.     

Siderophore production by actinomycetes isolates from two soil sites in Western Australia

The actinomycetes are metabolically flexible soil micro-organisms capable of producing a range of compounds of interest, including siderophores. Siderophore production by actinomycetes sampled from two distinct and separate geographical sites in Western Australia were investigated and found to be generally similar in the total percentage of siderophore producers found. The only notable difference was the proportion of isolates producing catechol siderophores with only 3% found in site 1 (from the north-west of Western Australia and reportedly containing 40% magnetite) and 17% in site 2 (a commercial stone fruit orchard in the hills east of Perth with a soil base ranging from sandy loam to laterite). Further detailed characterization of isolates of interest identified a Streptomyces that produced extracellularly excreted enterobactin, the characteristic Enterobacteriaceae siderophore, and also revealed some of the conditions required for enterobactin production. Carriage of the entF gene, which codes for the synthetase responsible for the final assembly of the tri-cyclic structure of enterobactin, was confirmed by PCR in this isolate. Another separate Streptomyces produced a compound that matched the UV/VIS spectra of heterobactin, a siderophore previously only described in Rhodococcus and Nocardia.     

海绵来源链霉菌S52-B中氨酰胺天然产物的分离与鉴定

【背景】海洋微生物是复杂海洋生态环境中重要的生物资源之一。海洋微生物所产生的活性天然产物极为丰富,是药物或药物先导化合物的重要来源。【目的】探索海洋中海绵来源链霉菌Streptomycessp.S52-B的优势生长条件,挖掘其次级代谢产物,以期分离具有良好生物活性的天然产物。【方法】根据"One Strain Many Compounds"(OSMAC)策略,寻找利于Streptomyces sp. S52-B生长和次级代谢产物产生的优势培养基,结合质谱及特征性的紫外吸收谱图,选择培养基进行大量发酵。利用正相硅胶柱色谱、葡聚糖凝胶柱色谱和制备型高效液相色谱等进行分离纯化,并应用高分辨质谱和核磁共振光谱进行化合物结构解析。【结果】确定培养基A–D为海洋链霉菌S52-B的优势培养基,基于紫外吸收光谱与质谱分析,从培养基A的大量发酵物中分离鉴定3个具有吡咯并[4,3,2-de]喹啉核心结构的含氯化合物,属于氨酰胺类天然产物,其中Ammosalic acid为新结构化合物。【结论】已知含有吡咯并喹啉母核的氨酰胺类家族化合物具有优良的抗癌活性。本研究从海绵来源链霉菌S52-B中分离鉴定了3个氨酰胺类化合物,其中一个是新结构化合物,不仅丰富了此类化合物家族的结构类型,也为研究其生物合成途径中的未知机理奠定了基础,还有利于结合培养条件和基因组信息从这株海绵来源链霉菌中挖掘新结构的活性天然产物。     

Gene Cluster Involved in the Biosynthesis of Griseobactin,a Catechol-Peptide Siderophore of Streptomyces sp. ATCC 700974

The main siderophores produced by streptomycetes are desferrioxamines. Here we show that Streptomyces sp. ATCC 700974 and several Streptomyces griseus strains, in addition, synthesize a hitherto unknown siderophore with a catechol-peptide structure, named griseobactin. The production is repressed by iron. We sequenced a 26-kb DNA region comprising a siderophore biosynthetic gene cluster encoding proteins similar to DhbABCEFG, which are involved in the biosynthesis of 2,3-dihydroxybenzoate (DHBA) and in the incorporation of DHBA into siderophores via a nonribosomal peptide synthetase. Adjacent to the biosynthesis genes are genes that encode proteins for the secretion, uptake, and degradation of siderophores. To correlate the gene cluster with griseobactin synthesis, the dhb genes in ATCC 700974 were disrupted. The resulting mutants no longer synthesized DHBA and griseobactin; production of both was restored by complementation with the dhb genes. Heterologous expression of the dhb genes or of the entire griseobactin biosynthesis gene cluster in the catechol-negative strain Streptomyces lividans TK23 resulted in the synthesis and secretion of DHBA or griseobactin, respectively, suggesting that these genes are sufficient for DHBA and griseobactin biosynthesis. Griseobactin was purified and characterized; its structure is consistent with a cyclic and, to a lesser extent, linear form of the trimeric ester of 2,3-dihydroxybenzoyl-arginyl-threonine complexed with aluminum under iron-limiting conditions. This is the first report identifying the gene cluster for the biosynthesis of DHBA and a catechol siderophore in Streptomyces.Iron is an essential element for the growth and proliferation of nearly all microorganisms. In the presence of oxygen, the soluble ferrous iron is readily oxidized to its ferric form, which exists predominantly as a highly insoluble hydroxide complex at neutral pH. To overcome iron limitation, many bacteria synthesize and secrete low-molecular-weight, high-affinity ferric iron chelators, called siderophores (38, 53). Following the chelation of Fe³⁺ in the medium, the iron-siderophore complex is actively taken up by its cognate ABC transport system, and Fe³⁺ is subsequently released by reduction to Fe²⁺ and/or by hydrolysis of the siderophore (28, 32, 36). The three main classes of siderophores contain catecholates, hydroxamates, or (α-hydroxy-)carboxylates as iron-coordinating ligands, but mixed siderophores and siderophores containing other functional groups, such as diphenolates, imidazoles, and thiazolines, have also been found (16, 38).Siderophores containing peptide moieties are synthesized by proteins belonging to the nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) family (16, 38). These multimodular enzymes function as enzymatic assembly lines in which the order of the modules usually determines the order of the amino acids incorporated into the peptide (19, 34). Each module contains the complete information for an elongation step combining the catalytic functions for the activation of the amino acid by the adenylation (A) domain, the tethering of the corresponding adenylate to the terminal thiol of the enzyme-bound 4′-phosphopantetheinyl (4′-PP) cofactor by the peptidyl carrier protein (PCP) domain, and the formation of the peptide bond by the condensation (C) domain (26, 34, 52). At the end, the product is released by the C-terminal thioesterase (TE) domain by hydrolysis or by cyclization via intramolecular condensation. Each adenylation domain recognizes a specific amino acid, and its substrate specificity can be predicted by its sequence. An NRPS specificity-conferring code consisting of 10 nonadjacent amino acid residues in the A domain has been proposed (49). Exceptions to the “colinearity-rule” (19) have been discovered. For example, in the biosynthesis of the siderophores enterobactin and bacillibactin, all the modules in the NRPS are used iteratively, and the TE domain stitches the chains together into a cyclic product (35, 45). Enterobactin is the trilactone of 2,3-dihydroxybenzoyl-serine, and bacillibactin is the lactone of 2,3-dihydroxybenzoyl-glycyl-threonine.The typical siderophores produced by streptomycetes are desferrioxamines (24), and the genes encoding the enzymes for their biosynthesis have been identified (5). Recently, structurally different siderophores have been reported to be coproduced with desferrioxamines in some species, e.g., coelichelin in Streptomyces coelicolor (9, 30) and enterobactin in Streptomyces tendae (18). The genes encoding the proteins for the biosynthesis of enterobactin in S. tendae remain unknown.Here we describe the gene cluster for the biosynthesis of a new siderophore, named griseobactin, produced by Streptomyces sp. strain ATCC 700974 and some strains of Streptomyces griseus. By sequencing two cosmids isolated from a Streptomyces sp. strain ATCC 700974 genomic library, we assigned the encoded proteins to enzymes that convert chorismate to 2,3-dihydroxybenzoate (DHBA), and to proteins involved in nonribosomal peptide biosynthesis and in the export, uptake, and utilization of siderophores. Knockout mutagenesis and heterologous expression confirmed the requirement of this gene cluster for the biosynthesis of griseobactin. This is the first report on the identification of the genes responsible for DHBA and catechol siderophore biosynthesis in Streptomyces.