Definition of a series of stages in the association of two herpesviral proteins with the cell nucleus.

We examined the kinetics and the nature of the association of two herpes simplex virus proteins, the major DNA-binding protein (ICP8) and the major capsid protein (ICP5), with the nuclei of infected cells. We defined a series of stages in the association of the ICP8 protein with the cell nucleus. (i) Immediately after synthesis, the protein was found in the cytoplasmic fraction but associated rapidly with the crude nuclear fraction. (ii) The initial association of ICP8 with the crude nuclear fraction was detergent sensitive but DNase resistant, and, thus, the protein was either bound to structures attached to the outside of the nucleus and had not penetrated the nuclear envelope or was loosely bound in the nucleus, (iii) At intermediate times, a low level of an intermediate form was observed in which the association of ICP8 with the nuclear fraction was resistant to both detergent and DNase treatment. The protein may be bound to the nuclear matrix at this stage. Inhibition of viral DNA synthesis caused the DNA-binding protein to accumulate in this form. (iv) At late times during the chase period, the association of ICP8 with the cell nucleus was resistant to detergent treatment but sensitive to DNase treatment. our results argue that at this stage ICP8 was bound to viral DNA. Thus, nuclear association of the DNA-binding protein did not require viral DNA replication. More important is the observation that there is a series of stages in the nuclear association of this protein, and, thus, there may be a succession of binding sites for this protein in the cell during its movement to its final site of action in the nucleus. The major capsid protein showed some similar stages of association with the cell nucleus but the initial association with the nucleus followed a lag period. Its early association with the crude nuclear fraction was also detergent sensitive but was resistant to detergent treatment at later times. Its association with the cell nucleus was almost completely resistant to DNase treatment at all times. Inhibition of viral DNA replication blocked the nuclear transport of this protein. Thus, these two viral proteins share some stages in nuclear transport, although their requirements for nuclear association are different.     

Thermolabile in vivo DNA-binding activity associated with a protein encoded by mutants of herpes simplex virus type 1.

The major DNA-binding protein encoded by several temperature-sensitive mutants of herpes simplex virus type 1 was thermolabile for binding to intracellular viral DNA. The ability of DNase I to release this protein from isolated nuclei was used as a measure of the amount of protein bound to viral DNA. This assay was based upon our previous observation that the fraction of herpesviral DNA-binding protein which can be eluted from nuclei with DNase I represents proteins associated with progeny viral DNA (D. M. Knipe and A. E. Spang, J. Virol. 43:314-324, 1982). In this study, we found that several temperature-sensitive mutants encoded proteins which rapidly chased from a DNase I-sensitive to a DNase I-resistant nuclear form upon shift to the nonpermissive temperature. We interpret this change in DNase I sensitivity to represent the denaturation of the DNA-binding site at the nonpermissive temperature and the association with the nuclear framework via a second site on the protein. The DNA-binding activity measured by the DNase I sensitivity assay represents an important function of the protein in viral replication because three of five mutants tested were thermolabile for this activity. A fourth mutant encoded a protein which did not associate with the nucleus at the nonpermissive temperature and therefore would not be available for DNA binding in the nucleus. We also present supportive evidence for the binding of the wild-type protein to intracellular viral DNA by showing that a monoclonal antibody coprecipitated virus-specific DNA sequences with the major DNA-binding protein.     

Persistence of the Recombinant Genomes of Woodchuck Hepatitis Virus in the Mouse Model

Hydrodynamic injection (HI) with a replication competent hepatitis B virus (HBV) genome may lead to transient or prolonged HBV replication in mice. However, the prolonged HBV persistence after HI depends on the specific backbone of the vector carrying HBV genome and the genetic background of the mouse strain. We asked whether a genetically closely related hepadnavirus, woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV), may maintain the gene expression and replication in the mouse liver after HI. Interestingly, we found that HI of pBS-WHV1.3 containing a 1.3 fold overlength WHV genome in BALB/c mouse led to the long presence of WHV DNA and WHV proteins expression in the mouse liver. Thus, we asked whether WHV genome carrying foreign DNA sequences could maintain the long term gene expression and persistence. For this purpose, the coding region of HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) was inserted into the WHV genome to replace the corresponding region. Three recombinant WHV-HBV genomes were constructed with the replacement with HBsAg a-determinant, major HBsAg, and middle HBsAg. Serum HBsAg, viral DNA, hepatic WHV protein expression, and viral replication intermediates were detected in mice after HI with recombinant genomes. Similarly, the recombinant genomes could persist for a prolonged period of time up to 45 weeks in mice. WHV and recombinant WHV-HBV genomes did not trigger effective antibody and T-cell responses to viral proteins. The ability of recombinant WHV constructs to persist in mice is an interesting aspect for the future investigation and may be explored for in vivo gene transfer.     

Topoisomerase I-mediated integration of hepadnavirus DNA in vitro.

Hepadnaviruses integrate in cellular DNA via an illegitimate recombination mechanism, and clonally propagated integrations are present in most hepatocellular carcinomas which arise in hepadnavirus carriers. Although integration is not specific for any viral or cellular sequence, highly preferred integration sites have been identified near the DR1 and DR2 sequences and in the cohesive overlap region of virion DNA. We have mapped a set of preferred topoisomerase I (Topo I) cleavage sites in the region of DR1 on plus-strand DNA and in the cohesive overlap near DR2 and have tested whether Topo I is capable of mediating illegitimate recombination of woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) DNA with cellular DNA by developing an in vitro assay for Topo I-mediated linking. Four in vitro-generated virus-cell hybrid molecules have been cloned, and sequence analysis demonstrated that Topo I can mediate both linkage of WHV DNA to 5'OH acceptor ends of heterologous DNA fragments and linkage of WHV DNA into internal sites of a linear double-stranded cellular DNA. The in vitro integrations occurred at preferred Topo I cleavage sites in WHV DNA adjacent to the DR1 and were nearly identical to a subset of integrations cloned from hepatocellular carcinomas. The end specificity and polarity of viral sequences in the integrations allows us to propose a prototype integration mechanism for both ends of a linearized hepadnavirus DNA molecule.     

Nucleotide sequence of an infectious molecularly cloned genome of ground squirrel hepatitis virus.

We have determined the complete nucleotide sequence of an infectious cloned genome of ground squirrel hepatitis virus (GSHV), a nonpathogenic member of the hepadnavirus group. The genome is 3,311 base pairs long and contains the major open reading frames described for the related human and woodchuck hepatitis B viruses (HBV and WHV, respectively). These reading frames include genes for the major structural proteins (the surface and core antigens), unassigned open reading frames (A and B), the longer of which is presumed to encode the viral DNA polymerase, and an open reading frame preceding and continuous with the surface antigen gene. The arrangement of these open reading frames is similar to that encountered in the genomes of HBV and WHV: all of the reading frames are encoded on the same strand, they are positioned in the same fashion with respect to each other, and a large portion (at least 51%) of the genome can be translated in two reading frames. Comparisons of the predicted translational products of the three mammalian hepadnaviruses reveal 78% amino acid homology between the proteins of GSHV and WHV and 43% homology between those of GSHV and HBV. In addition, a perfect direct repeat of 10 to 11 base pairs, separated by ca. 46 to 223 base pairs, is present in the three mammalian viruses and in duck hepatitis B virus; the position of the repeats near the 5' termini of the two strands of virion DNA suggests a role in viral replication.     

Herpes simplex virus type 1 entry into host cells: reconstitution of capsid binding and uncoating at the nuclear pore complex in vitro

During entry, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) releases its capsid and the tegument proteins into the cytosol of a host cell by fusing with the plasma membrane. The capsid is then transported to the nucleus, where it docks at the nuclear pore complexes (NPCs), and the viral genome is rapidly released into the nucleoplasm. In this study, capsid association with NPCs and uncoating of the viral DNA were reconstituted in vitro. Isolated capsids prepared from virus were incubated with cytosol and purified nuclei. They were found to bind to the nuclear pores. Binding could be inhibited by pretreating the nuclei with wheat germ agglutinin, anti-NPC antibodies, or antibodies against importin beta. Furthermore, in the absence of cytosol, purified importin beta was both sufficient and necessary to support efficient capsid binding to nuclei. Up to 60 to 70% of capsids interacting with rat liver nuclei in vitro released their DNA if cytosol and metabolic energy were supplied. Interaction of the capsid with the nuclear pore thus seemed to trigger the release of the viral genome, implying that components of the NPC play an active role in the nuclear events during HSV-1 entry into host cells.     

Phosphorylation-dependent binding of hepatitis B virus core particles to the nuclear pore complex

Although many viruses replicate in the nucleus, little is known about the processes involved in the nuclear import of viral genomes. We show here that in vitro generated core particles of human hepatitis B virus bind to nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) in digitonin-permeabilized mammalian cells. This only occurred if the cores contained phosphorylated core proteins. Binding was inhibited by wheat germ agglutinin, by antinuclear pore complex antibodies, and by peptides corresponding either to classical nuclear localization signals (NLS) or to COOH-terminal sequences of the core protein. Binding was dependent on the nuclear transport factors importins (karyopherins) alpha and beta. The results suggested that phosphorylation induces exposure of NLS in the COOH-terminal portion of the core protein that allows core binding to the NPCs by the importin- (karyopherin-) mediated pathway. Thus, phosphorylation of the core protein emerged as an important step in the viral replication cycle necessary for transport of the viral genome to the nucleus.     

Monitoring of early events of experimental woodchuck hepatitis infection: Studies of peripheral blood mononuclear cells by cytofluorometry and PCR

Abstract The peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of woodchucks experimentally infected by woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) were examined simultaneously for the presence of membrane associated WHV antigens by cytofluorometry, and for WHV DNA and RNA sequences by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Four woodchucks were inoculated: two with a well-defined infectious inoculum and two with an inoculum obtained from an animal at the late incubation phase, which was positive for WHV DNA by PCR but still devoid of WHV markers. Infection was demonstrated in all four inoculated woodchucks by the appearance at different times of WHV DNA and WHV antigens in both leucocytes and serum. WHV DNA was first detected by PCR either in the serum (two cases) or in leucocytes (two cases). The mean percentage of cells positive for membrane associated WHsAg or WHcAg detected by cytofluorometry were 37%±25 and 17%±15 respectively. After 8 weeks, all inoculated animals were WHsAg positive in serum. These data suggest that PBMC are involved in the early events of hepadnavirus infection. They also show that sera which are positive by PCR for WHV DNA may transmit viral infection even while still seronegative for WHV markers and for WHV DNA by dot blot.     

Identification and localization of pre-s-encoded polypeptides from woodchuck and ground squirrel hepatitis viruses.

A segment from the pre-s region of the woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) was inserted into an open reading frame vector allowing for the expression in Escherichia coli of viral determinants as part of a fusion protein. The bacterially synthesized fusion molecule contained eight amino acids from beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) at the N terminus, followed by 89 pre-s-encoded amino acids and 219 amino acids of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) at the C terminus (beta-gal:pre-s:CAT). This tribrid protein was used to generate antiserum which had a significant titer to the viral portion of the fusion polypeptide. Anti-beta-gal:pre-s:CAT was used in Western blot analysis to identify viral proteins containing pre-s-encoded determinants. Antiserum to the tribrid molecule recognized four WHV polypeptides with molecular masses of 33, 36, 45, and 47 kilodaltons, each of which was also recognized by a monoclonal antibody to WHV surface antigen. Using the same anti-tribrid serum, we also identified analogous polypeptides from ground squirrel hepatitis virus. The antiserum was also used to immunoprecipitate virus particles containing endogenous DNA polymerase activity, indicating that pre-s determinants are found on the surface of mature virions. Based on previous computer studies and the location of pre-s-encoded molecules on the surface of virus particles, a role in hepadnavirus host cell entry is suggested for these polypeptides.     

Methylation of nucleosomal and nuclease sensitive DNA.

The proportion of cytosines methylated in the DNA of nucleosome oligomers and of core particles appears indistinguishable from that of total nuclear DNA from CHO cells. However the DNA in nucleoprotein which is initially released from nuclei by treatment with very low levels of micrococcal nuclease and the first 10% of material rendered acid soluble by treatment of nuclei with DNase I are enriched 2 fold in their content of 5 methylcytosine. (Cessation of hydrolysis by nuclease occurs concomitantly with precipitation of nucleosomal core particles).     

Characterization of the endogenous deoxyribonuclease involved in nuclear DNA degradation during apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Cell death by apoptosis occurs in a wide range of physiological events including repertoire selection of lymphocytes and during immune responses in vivo. A hallmark of apoptosis is the internucleosomal DNA degradation for which a Ca2+,Mg(2+)-dependent endonuclease has been postulated. This nuclease activity was extracted from both rat thymocyte and lymph node cell nuclei. When incubated with nuclei harbouring only limited amounts of endogenous nuclease activity, the ladder pattern of DNA fragments characteristic of apoptosis was induced. This extractable nucleolytic activity was immunoprecipitated with antibodies specific for rat deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I) and was inhibited by actin in complex with gelsolin segment 1, strongly pointing to the presence of a DNase I-type enzyme in the nuclear extracts. COS cells transiently transfected with the cDNA of rat parotid DNase I expressed the enzyme, and their nuclei were able to degrade their DNA into oligosome-sized fragments. PCR analysis of mRNA isolated from thymus, lymph node cells and kidney yielded a product identical in size to that from rat parotid DNase I. Immunohistochemical staining with antibodies to rat DNase I confirmed the presence of DNase I antigen in thymocytes and lymph node cells. The tissue distribution of DNase I is thus extended to tissues with no digestive function and to cells which are known to be susceptible to apoptosis. We propose that during apoptosis, an endonuclease indistinguishable from DNase I gains access to the nucleus due to the breakdown of the ER and the nuclear membrane.     

Nuclear targeting of adenovirus type 2 requires CRM1-mediated nuclear export

Incoming adenovirus type 2 (Ad2) and Ad5 shuttle bidirectionally along microtubules, biased to the microtubule-organizing center by the dynein/dynactin motor complex. It is unknown how the particles reach the nuclear pore complex, where capsids disassemble and viral DNA enters the nucleus. Here, we identified a novel link between nuclear export and microtubule-mediated transport. Two distinct inhibitors of the nuclear export factor CRM1, leptomycin B (LMB) and ratjadone A (RJA) or CRM1-siRNAs blocked adenovirus infection, arrested cytoplasmic transport of viral particles at the microtubule-organizing center or in the cytoplasm and prevented capsid disassembly and nuclear import of the viral genome. In mitotic cells where CRM1 is in the cytoplasm, adenovirus particles were not associated with microtubules but upon LMB treatment, they enriched at the spindle poles implying that CRM1 inhibited microtubule association of adenovirus. We propose that CRM1, a nuclear factor exported by CRM1 or a protein complex containing CRM1 is part of a sensor mechanism triggering the unloading of the incoming adenovirus particles from microtubules proximal to the nucleus of interphase cells.     

中国青海地区喜马拉雅旱獭嗜肝病毒自然感染的组织学研究

应用原位杂交技术、免疫组化技术以土拨鼠肝炎病毒(Woodchuck hepatitis virus,WHV)的检测系统检测50份 喜马拉雅旱獭肝组织可能存在的嗜肝病毒c基因、s抗原及c抗原的表达,同时检测肝脏组织病理学改变。结果显示 旱獭肝组织中嗜肝病毒s抗原、c抗原的阳性率分别为26％(13／50)、36％(18／50);在抗原双阳性的10份肝组织标本 中有c基因的阳性表达,阳性率为50％。c抗原定位于肝细胞胞浆和／或胞核,呈散在、片簇状分布,c基因定位于肝细 胞的细胞核,阳性细胞散在分布。50份标本中5份出现肝炎的病理改变,与抗原检出间无明显相关性。使用WHV 的病毒检测系统证实青海地区喜马拉雅旱獭可能存在类似WHV的嗜肝病毒感染,从组织学的角度为中国青海地区 喜马拉雅旱獭嗜肝病毒自然感染提供证据,此种动物有可能用于建立嗜肝病毒感染的动物模型。     

Intranuclear distribution of the human myeloid cell nuclear differentiation antigen in HL-60 cells

Based on solubility properties, the human myeloid cell nuclear differentiation antigen exists as at least two distinct populations. Most is easily extracted from isolated nuclei in 0.35 M NaCl, while 20 percent resists such treatment. Compared to undigested nuclei, both the amount of myeloid cell nuclear differentiation antigen (MNDA) released from nuclei after DNase I treatment and the amount resisting further extraction in 0.35 M NaCl increased after DNA was digested with DNase I. Under these conditions, there was a concomitant decrease in the amount of MNDA that was extractable with 0.35 M NaCl. Mixing nuclear protein extracts that contain MNDA with nuclei from cells that do not express this protein demonstrated that the MNDA redistributes from the freely soluble form to the nuclear residual fraction as a consequence of DNase I digestion. These data are consistent with a model in which the amount of MNDA that is tightly bound to salt-washed nuclei is held constant in the presence of an excess of unassociated MNDA in the nucleus, and that the level of MNDA binding to this nuclear fraction increases in proportion to the extent of DNA damage resulting from DNase I digestion.