稻瘟病菌致病相关基因研究进展*

稻瘟病是水稻的毁灭性病害,世界各地水稻产区都有此病发生。稻瘟病菌(Magnaporthe grisea)具有许多病原菌生命循环的重要特点:（1）分化形成称为附着胞的特异的侵染结构.（2）在这个过程中需要粘胶、疏水蛋白、黑色素、甘油等物质的合成与参与。（3）附着胞具有穿透寄主表皮的功能。（4）具有特异的信号传导途径,调节附着胞、侵染栓等侵染结构的形态分化（morphogenesis）。（5）在M. grisea和其寄主之间存在基因对基因关系,涉及到主要的真菌无毒基因和植物抗性基因。因此,稻瘟病菌致病的分子生物学及其与水稻寄主的互作研究是寻找新的…     

稻瘟病菌致病变突体的REMI诱变与鉴定

以水稻“爱知旭”为寄主,将带选择标记的质粒ｐＣＳＮ４３和ｐＢＦ１０１为外ＤＮＡ,利用限制酶诱导整合这种新方法转化稻瘟菌原生质体,从筛选到的数百个转化体中分离出３个与致病能力密切相关的突变体Ｒ２Ｈ６５,Ｒ２Ｈ６９和Ｒ２Ｂ１５６５。其中Ｒ２Ｈ６５和Ｒ２Ｈ６９只产生畸形分生孢子,分生孢子的发育和附着胞的形成以及黑色素的合成均受到极大影响,致病性测试证明完全丧失致病能力;     

基因组水平预测稻瘟菌分泌蛋白组及富集分析

稻瘟菌分泌蛋白在稻瘟菌入侵植物过程中发挥着重要的作用。这些分泌蛋白中有很多是效应蛋白,这些效应蛋白可以干扰寄主的抗性、抑制寄主免疫反应。因此,对稻瘟菌分泌蛋白组的预测及功能分析就显得十分必要,也是目前植物和微生物分子互作研究领域的热点。使用SignalP、TMHMM及SecretomeP等软件,完成稻瘟菌分泌蛋白组的预测。同时,对含信号肽的经典分泌蛋白进行了GO功能富集、KEGG通路分析、结构域统计以及可降解植物成分的经典分泌蛋白预测等分析。结果显示,稻瘟菌含有约789个分泌蛋白,其长度多集中在100-500 aa;GO功能分析发现,这些分泌蛋白多富集在分泌途径及宿主互作中;KEGG分析显示,分泌蛋白在糖代谢途径中发挥着重要作用;大规模筛选预测到156个分泌蛋白具有降解植物细胞壁等成分的功能;同时还发现稻瘟菌中有可能存在大量不含信号肽的非经典分泌蛋白。通过设计的生物信息学流程,实现了稻瘟菌分泌蛋白组的预测;预测出经典分泌蛋白具有可降解植物细胞壁等成分以及参与糖代谢途径的功能;稻瘟菌中存在大量的无信号肽的非经典分泌蛋白。     

第二代测序技术用于水稻和稻瘟菌互作早期转录组的分析

稻瘟菌为了实现对水稻的有效侵染,在侵染水稻时可能通过表达和转运一定数量的效应蛋白进入到水稻细胞,抑制和干扰水稻的先天免疫机制。文章利用Solexa第二代测序技术,通过开展水稻和稻瘟菌互作早期转录组的测定和分析,克隆和鉴定在互作早期表达的稻瘟菌效应蛋白基因。利用序列同源比对,我们从总计约12.5 M条序列标签中,分离和鉴定了338 942条来源于稻瘟菌的序列,并最终定位到779个稻瘟菌预测基因。其中108个基因很可能参与了水稻和稻瘟菌互作过程,42个基因为预测的分泌蛋白基因。通过RT-PCR分析,最终确认了42个预测分泌蛋白基因中有12个基因在侵染水稻早期有显著的表达,而其中有4个基因表现为侵染早期特异表达。文章尝试利用第二代测序技术实现稻瘟菌侵染早期特异表达基因,尤其是分泌蛋白基因的快速克隆和鉴定,为稻瘟菌效应蛋白基因的克隆和功能鉴定提供了较为有意义的探索。     

稻瘟菌MgORP1基因敲除突变株的构建及其表型分析

[目的]了解稻瘟病菌中氧固醇结合蛋白(oxysterol-binding proteins related proteins,缩写为ORPs)家族成员组成情况,构建MgORP1基因缺失突变株和互补株,对MgORP1基因功能进行初步研究.[方法]以ORPs家族的典型结构域"ORD"为靶标,对稻瘟病菌基因组数据库进行BlastP搜索.通过同源重组的策略,构建MgORP1基因缺失突变体,再通过重新导入该基因全长片段获得互补株.然后对野生型、突变体和互补株进行菌落、分生孢子和附着胞形态或形成情况、以及致病力进行比较分析.[结果]稻瘟病菌基因组中含有6个可能的ORPs族蛋白,其中MgORP1基因的破坏降低了稻瘟菌在完全培养基上的菌落生长速率和产孢量.但对菌丝、分生孢子和附着胞的形态,以及在水稻上的致病力没有明显影响.[结论]MgORP1基因可能与稻瘟病菌的菌落生长和产孢量相关.     

稻瘟菌无毒基因研究进展

无毒基因编码的产物激发病原物与植物特异性相互作用。水稻与稻瘟菌之间的特异互作符合“基因对基因”关系。从研究稻瘟菌无毒基因的意义、已鉴定和克隆的稻瘟菌无毒基因、稻瘟菌无毒基因与其抗病基因的互作特点等几个方面,对稻瘟菌无毒基因研究进展作了简要评述 。     

bZIP转录因子CfHac1参与调控果生刺盘孢菌的生长发育和致病力

油茶炭疽病是油茶Camellia oleifera上最重要病害之一,引起该病害的主要致病菌为果生刺盘孢菌Colletotrichum fructicola。本研究以果生刺盘孢菌bZIP类转录因子CfHac1为研究对象,研究其在果生刺盘孢菌的营养生长、产孢量、附着胞形成、致病力及耐受性等方面的生物学功能,为油茶炭疽病的防控提供理论依据。研究结果表明,果生刺盘孢菌中具有一个与灰色大角间座壳（稻瘟菌）bZIP转录因子MoHac1直系同源的基因,命名为CfHAC1。该基因全长1 627bp,编码526个氨基酸,该蛋白含有一个碱性亮氨酸链（bZIP）结构域和3个未知功能结构域。CfHAC1基因敲除突变体的菌丝生长速度显著变慢,分生孢子产量显著减少且不能正常形成附着胞,并对山梨糖醇和KCl渗透压胁迫敏感性增加;致病力测试结果表明,果生刺盘孢菌基因敲除突变体ΔCfhac1对油茶的致病力显著下降。转录因子CfHac1参与调控果生刺盘孢菌的生长、产孢、附着胞的形成、致病力以及响应外界渗透压胁迫过程。     

稻瘟菌无毒基因研究进展

稻瘟菌是引起水稻稻瘟病的病原物。水稻与稻瘟菌间存在广泛而特异的相互作用,是研究寄主与病原物互作的重要模式系统。本文对稻瘟菌与水稻互作最重要的激发子―无毒基因的研究现状进行了概括,讨论了无毒基因的定位、克隆方法以及已克隆无毒基因的功能及进化研究,同时对今后无毒基因研究的重要方向进行了探讨,为深入理解无毒基因的功能及与水稻可能的互作关系奠定了基础。     

稻曲病菌PMK1类同源基因克隆及在稻瘟病菌遗传互补中的功能验证

[目的]克隆稻曲病菌PMK1类MAPK(Mitogen-activated protein kinase)同源基因.[方法]根据丝状真菌MAPK蛋白保守性设计简并引物扩增稻曲病菌MAPK基因部分片段,进而利用TAIL-PCR进行染色体步移和RT-PCR获得UVMK1基因全长和cDNA全长.构建互补载体,交叉互补稻瘟病菌APMK1突变体菌株nn78进行功能验证,包括附着胞分化和致病性测定.[结果]UVMK1基因全长1435 bp,包含3个内含子,编码355氨基酸的蛋白.UVMK1推导蛋白与丝状真菌Magnaporthe grisea PMK1,Fusarium oxysporum FMK1,Fusarium solani FSMAPK,Colletotrichumlagenarium CMK1,Botrytis cinerea BMK1,Claviceps purpurea CMPK1等编码蛋白高度同源.转化稻瘟病菌菌株nn78,获得5个转化子.其中选取的转化子恢复了稻瘟病菌正常的附着胞分化和对大麦叶片的致病能力.[结论]本研究成功分离了首个稻曲病菌MAPK基因,而且UVMK1基因是稻瘟病菌PMK1的同源基因.     

金龟子绿僵菌附着胞分化及其与环腺苷酸cAMP的关联性研究

寄主识别与附着胞分化是虫生真菌启动侵染过程的首要步骤。本文利用先前获得的金龟子绿僵菌基因缺失突变株与其野生型一起进行附着胞分化研究。接种后不同时间下的观察表明,绿僵菌突变株或野生型的附着胞既可以在萌发不久的芽管顶端形成,也可以在伸长菌丝分支的顶端形成。与野生型不同的是,突变株附着胞的分化频率显著下降,附着胞周围也缺乏粘液层的产生。研究表明,绿僵菌的类枯草杆菌类体壁降解酶对于附着胞分化不产生影响,对体壁降解也非完全必需的。与突变株附着胞分化频率显著降低相对应,其胞内环腺苷酸cAMP水平显著下降,而添加外源cAMP能够显著增加其附着胞分化频率,说明绿僵菌cAMP信号途径对于调控附着胞分化起着重要的作用。     

Peroxisomal carnitine acetyl transferase is required for elaboration of penetration hyphae during plant infection by Magnaporthe grisea

Magnaporthe grisea, the causal agent of rice blast disease, invades plant tissue due to the action of specialized infection structures called appressoria, which are used to breach the leaf cuticle and allow development of intracellular, infectious hyphae. In this report we demonstrate that peroxisomal carnitine acetyl transferase (CAT) activity is necessary for appressorium function, and in particular, for the elaboration of primary penetration hyphae. The major CAT activity in M. grisea is encoded by the PTH2 gene, which shows elevated expression in response to acetate and lipid, and is regulated by the cyclic AMP response pathway. Furthermore, a Pth2-GFP fusion protein colocalizes with a peroxisomal marker protein. Targeted deletion of PTH2, generated mutants that were completely non-pathogenic, lacked CAT activity and were unable to utilize a range of lipid substrates. The impairment of appressorium function in Deltapth2 was associated with a delay in lipid reserve mobilization from germ tubes into developing infection cells, and abnormal chitin distribution in infection structures. Addition of glucose to Deltapth2 mutants partially restored the ability to cause rice blast disease and lipid reserve mobilization. Taken together, our findings provide evidence that Pth2 plays a role in the generation of acetyl CoA pools necessary for appressorium function and rapid elaboration of penetration hyphae during host infection.     

Effects of Calcium and Calmodulin on Spore Germination and Appressorium Development in Colletotrichum trifolii

Spore germination and appressorium formation are important steps in the process of fungal development and pathogenesis. These prepenetration events, which begin with spore attachment and culminate with appressorium maturation, a common scheme for many pathogenic fungi, are prerequisites for penetration of host external barriers and subsequent colonization. Conditions for in vitro spore germination and appressorium development in Colletotrichum trifolii are described. In addition, effects of Ca(sup2+) and calmodulin on these processes have been examined. Results indicate that, as for other pathogenic fungi, appressorium development is induced on a hard surface. The data suggest that disturbance of calcium homeostasis, by ethylene-bis(oxy-ethylenenitrolo)tetraacetic acid (EGTA) or calcium channel blockers, impairs appressorium development. Moreover, calmodulin inhibitors affect both germination and differentiation, implying that the Ca(sup2+)/calmodulin signal transduction pathway is important in the early development of C. trifolii on the plant host surface.     

Scanning electron and light microscopy of appressorium development in Piptocephalis unispora (Mucorales)

Appressorium development in the mycoparasite Piptocephalis unispora was studied by means of scanning electron microscopy using the techniques of critical point drying, sputter coating and light microscopy. The germ tube which contacts both the young host hypha or a germinating spore swells at the tip to form an appressorium closely adpressed to the surface of the host. Lateral proliferation of hyphae may occur from the mature appressorium. Factors affecting the sites of appressorium development are suggested and their significance discussed.     

Involvement of a Magnaporthe grisea serine/threonine kinase gene, MgATG1, in appressorium turgor and pathogenesis

We isolated an MgATG1 gene encoding a serine/threonine protein kinase from the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe grisea. In the DeltaMgatg1 mutant, in which the MgATG1 gene had been deleted, autophagy was blocked; the mutant also showed fewer lipid droplets in its conidia, lower turgor pressure of the appressorium, and such defects in morphogenesis as delayed initiation and slower germination of conidia. As a result of lower turgor pressure of the appressorium, the DeltaMgatg1 mutant lost its ability to penetrate and infect the two host plants, namely, rice and barley. However, normal values of the parameters and infective abilities were restored on reintroducing an intact copy of the MgATG1 gene into the mutant. Autophagy is thus necessary for turnover of organic matter during the formation of conidia and appressoria and for normal development and pathogenicity in M. grisea.     

Entry Mode�CDependent Function of an Indole Glucosinolate Pathway in Arabidopsis for Nonhost Resistance against Anthracnose Pathogens

When faced with nonadapted fungal pathogens, Arabidopsis thaliana mounts nonhost resistance responses, which typically result in the termination of early pathogenesis steps. We report that nonadapted anthracnose fungi engage two alternative entry modes during pathogenesis on leaves: turgor-mediated invasion beneath melanized appressoria, and a previously undiscovered hyphal tip–based entry (HTE) that is independent of appressorium formation. The frequency of HTE is positively regulated by carbohydrate nutrients and appears to be subject to constitutive inhibition by the fungal mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade of MAPK ESSENTIAL FOR APPRESSORIUM FORMATION1. The same MAPK cascade is essential for appressorium formation. Unexpectedly, the Arabidopsis indole glucosinolate pathway restricts entry of the nonadapted anthracnose fungi only when these pathogens employ HTE. Arabidopsis mutants defective in indole glucosinolate biosynthesis or metabolism support the initiation of postinvasion growth of nonadapted Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Colletotrichum orbiculare. However, genetic disruption of Colletotrichum appressorium formation does not permit HTE on host plants. Thus, Colletotrichum appressoria play a critical role in the suppression of preinvasion plant defenses, in addition to their previously described role in turgor-mediated plant cell invasion. We also show that HTE is the predominant morphogenetic response of Colletotrichum at wound sites. This implies the existence of a fungal sensing system to trigger appropriate morphogenetic responses during pathogenesis at wound sites and on intact leaf tissue.     

The Magas1 gene is involved in pathogenesis by affecting penetration in Metarhizium acridum

Appressorium is a specialized infection structure of filamentous pathogenic fungi and plays an important role in establishing a pathogenic relationship with the host. The Egh16/Egh16H family members are involved in appressorium formation and pathogenesis in pathogenic filamentous fungi. In this study, a homolog of Egh16H, Magas1, was identified from an entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium acridum. The Magas1 protein shared a number of conserved motifs with other Egh16/Egh16H family members and specifically expressed during the appressorium development period. Magas1-EGFP fusion expression showed that Magas1 protein was not localized inside the cell. Deletion of the Magas1 gene had no impact on vegetative growth, conidiation and appressorium formation, but resulted in a decreased mortality of host insect when topically inoculated. However, the mortality was not significant between the Magas1 deletion mutant and wild-type treatment when the cuticle was bypassed by injecting conidia directly into the hemocoel. Our results suggested that Magas1 may influence virulence by affecting the penetration of the insects' cuticle.     

The farnesyltransferase β-subunit RAM1 regulates localization of RAS proteins and appressorium-mediated infection in Magnaporthe oryzae

Post-translational farnesylation can regulate subcellular localization and protein–protein interaction in eukaryotes. The function of farnesylation is not well identified in plant pathogenic fungi, particularly during the process of fungal infection. Here, through functional analyses of the farnesyltransferase β-subunit gene, RAM1, we examine the importance of protein farnesylation in the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. Targeted disruption of RAM1 resulted in the reduction of hyphal growth and sporulation, and an increase in the sensitivity to various stresses. Importantly, loss of RAM1 also led to the attenuation of virulence on the plant host, characterized by decreased appressorium formation and invasive growth. Interestingly, the defect in appressoria formation of the Δram1 mutant can be recovered by adding exogenous cAMP and IBMX, suggesting that RAM1 functions upstream of the cAMP signalling pathway. We found that two Ras GTPases, RAS1 and RAS2, can interact with Ram1, and their plasma membrane localization was regulated by Ram1 through their C-terminal farnesylation sites. Adding a farnesyltransferase inhibitor Tipifarnib can result in similar defects as in Δram1 mutant, including decreased appressorium formation and invasive growth, as well as mislocalized RAS proteins. Our findings indicate that protein farnesylation regulates the RAS protein-mediated signaling pathways required for appressorium formation and host infection, and suggest that abolishing farnesyltransferase could be an effective strategy for disease control.     

Peroxisomal fission is induced during appressorium formation and is required for full virulence of the rice blast fungus

Peroxisomes are involved in various metabolic processes and are important for virulence in different pathogenic fungi. How peroxisomes rapidly emerge in the appressorium during fungal infection is poorly understood. Here, we describe a gene, PEF1, which can regulate peroxisome formation in the appressorium by controlling peroxisomal fission, and is required for plant infection in the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. Targeted deletion of PEF1 resulted in a reduction in virulence and a delay in penetration and invasive growth in host cells. PEF1 was particularly expressed during appressorial development, and its encoding protein was co‐localized with peroxisomes during appressorial development. Compared with the massive vesicle‐shaped peroxisomes formed in the wild‐type appressorium, the Δpef1 mutant could only form stringy linked immature peroxisomes, suggesting that PEF1 was involved in peroxisomal fission during appressorium formation. We also found that the Δpef1 mutant could not utilize fatty acids efficiently, which can improve significantly the expression level of PEF1 and induce peroxisomal fission. As expected, the Δpef1 mutant showed reduced intracellular production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during appressorium formation and induced ROS accumulation in host cells during infection. Taken together, PEF1‐mediated peroxisomal fission is important for fungal infection by controlling the number of peroxisomes in the appressorium.     

Septin-Dependent Assembly of the Exocyst Is Essential for Plant Infection by Magnaporthe oryzae

Magnaporthe oryzae is the causal agent of rice blast disease, the most devastating disease of cultivated rice (Oryza sativa) and a continuing threat to global food security. To cause disease, the fungus elaborates a specialized infection cell called an appressorium, which breaches the cuticle of the rice leaf, allowing the fungus entry to plant tissue. Here, we show that the exocyst complex localizes to the tips of growing hyphae during vegetative growth, ahead of the Spitzenkörper, and is required for polarized exocytosis. However, during infection-related development, the exocyst specifically assembles in the appressorium at the point of plant infection. The exocyst components Sec3, Sec5, Sec6, Sec8, and Sec15, and exocyst complex proteins Exo70 and Exo84 localize specifically in a ring formation at the appressorium pore. Targeted gene deletion, or conditional mutation, of genes encoding exocyst components leads to impaired plant infection. We demonstrate that organization of the exocyst complex at the appressorium pore is a septin-dependent process, which also requires regulated synthesis of reactive oxygen species by the NoxR-dependent Nox2 NADPH oxidase complex. We conclude that septin-mediated assembly of the exocyst is necessary for appressorium repolarization and host cell invasion.     

Cell Cycle–Mediated Regulation of Plant Infection by the Rice Blast Fungus

To gain entry to plants, many pathogenic fungi develop specialized infection structures called appressoria. Here, we demonstrate that appressorium morphogenesis in the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae is tightly regulated by the cell cycle. Shortly after a fungus spore lands on the rice (Oryza sativa) leaf surface, a single round of mitosis always occurs in the germ tube. We found that initiation of infection structure development is regulated by a DNA replication-dependent checkpoint. Genetic intervention in DNA synthesis, by conditional mutation of the Never-in-Mitosis 1 gene, prevented germ tubes from developing nascent infection structures. Cellular differentiation of appressoria, however, required entry into mitosis because nimA temperature-sensitive mutants, blocked at mitotic entry, were unable to develop functional appressoria. Arresting the cell cycle after mitotic entry, by conditional inactivation of the Blocked-in-Mitosis 1 gene or expression of stabilized cyclinB-encoding alleles, did not impair appressorium differentiation, but instead prevented these cells from invading plant tissue. When considered together, these data suggest that appressorium-mediated plant infection is coordinated by three distinct cell cycle checkpoints that are necessary for establishment of plant disease.