三萜皂苷的生物合成

异戊烯二磷酸在香叶二磷酸合成酶、法呢二磷酸合成酶、鲨烯合成酶和鲨烯环氧酶催化下合成2,3-氧化鲨烯,再经氧化鲨烯环化酶催化形成各种三萜类,三萜类经细胞色素P450、糖基转移酶和β-糖苷酶的修饰,形成各种类型的三萜皂苷。     

采用基因敲除和反义技术抑制酿酒酵母ERG7基因表达

酿酒酵母(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)固有的甲羟戊酸(MVA)/麦角甾醇代谢途径生成的中间体2,3-氧化鲨烯是三萜类化合物的合成前体,以酿酒酵母为底盘细胞通过合成生物学技术组建这些化合物的代谢途径时,需要下调2,3-氧化鲨烯流向麦角甾醇的代谢流。在酿酒酵母中由羊毛甾醇合酶(ERG7)催化的2,3-氧化鲨烯环化是麦角甾醇和三萜类化合物生物合成分支形成的关键位点。采用基因敲除和反义RNA 2种技术对ERG7基因的表达进行下调。设计含有与ERG7基因ORF两侧序列同源的长引物,以质粒PUG66为模板进行PCR扩增,构建带有loxP-Marker-loxP的ERG7基因敲除组件,采用LiAc/SS Carrier DNA/PEG方法转化双倍体酿酒酵母INVSc1,通过同源重组的方式获得酿酒酵母ERG7基因单倍体缺失突变株,并对其进行了分子生物学确证。大量培养野生型和突变型菌株,菌体冷干后在碱醇溶液中90℃回流1h,正己烷萃取后旋蒸干溶剂,甲醇溶解残留物麦角甾醇。通过TLC和HPLC方法比较麦角甾醇含量,结果表明:与野生型菌株相比,突变型菌株的麦角甾醇含量明显降低。     

罗汉果环阿屯醇合酶的同源建模、分子对接及催化环化的机理推测

环阿屯醇为植物甾醇类化合物,也是诸多甾醇类化合物生物合成的关键前体物质之一,具有抗炎、抗氧化、抗肿瘤、调节胆固醇等多种药理活性。课题组前期克隆了罗汉果环阿屯醇合酶基因(Cycloartenol Synthase,CAS)并对其进行了功能验证(GenBank登录号:HQ128566)。但该酶的催化活性位点及催化机制尚不明确,阻碍了进一步的改造及应用。本研究利用同源建模预测CAS的三维结构,结合分子对接模拟技术分析该酶与底物的相互作用,结果表明,Asp491、Cys492、Cys570、Tyr540、His265是CAS酶上关键的催化位点,Asp491质子化2,3-氧化鲨烯引发四个环化反应形成C20正离子中间体,然后中间体经过一系列的碳正离子重排形成C11正离子中间体,最后通过His265与Tyr540去质子化使得C27与C11原子间形成单键生成产物环阿屯醇。此外,活性空腔内存在大量的疏水氨基酸,则通过疏水作用稳定反应物、中间体结合在活性空腔。该酶活性位点的发现,为今后通过定点突变技术改造酶的活性及调控代谢通路奠定了基础。     

甾醇生物合成中的关键酶-环氧角鲨烯环化酶的分子生物学研究

植物体中环氧角鲨烯环化酶催化2,3-环氧角鲨烯形成一系列三萜烯,为甾醇和三萜化合物的生物合成提供前体。这一催化反应被认为是甾醇和三萜化合物生物合成分支形成的关键位点．综述了甾醇和三萜化合物生物合成中的关键酶——环氧角鲨烯环化酶（OSCs）家族的生物学功能,基因克隆与属性,酶的细胞定位与酶活的表达调控等分子生物学研究进展．     

细菌3-羟基丁酮及氧化还原产物代谢的研究进展

3-羟基丁酮及氧化还原产物是重要的4碳平台化合物,以糖质原料为底物的生物法制备是当今研究与生产的主流。介绍了3-羟基丁酮及氧化还原产物2,3-丁二醇、丁二酮产生的主要细菌,这些细菌积累3-羟基丁酮及氧化还原产物的代谢途径,主要的代谢及调控方式,代谢关键酶:乙酰乳酸合成酶、α-乙酰乳酸脱羧酶、2,3-丁二醇脱氢酶的结构与功能等国内外研究进展;并对3-羟基丁酮及氧化还原产物细菌代谢、发酵制备的未来研究提出了展望。     

甾体皂甙的生物合成

近年来,人们分离鉴定了许多结构新颖的皂甙,阐明了它们的结构及生物活性,并对甾体皂甙的生物合成途径进行了较为深入的研究。异戊烯二磷酸在香叶二磷酸合成酶、法呢二磷酸合成酶、鲨烯合成酶和鲨烯环氧酶催化下合成2,3-环氧化鲨烯,再经环氧化鲨烯环化酶催化下形成三萜进而转化成甾醇,甾醇经羟化酶、糖基转移酶和β-糖苷酶的修饰,形成各种类型的甾体皂甙。本文重点介绍了甾体皂甙生物合成中所需要的关键酶,特别是以往研究较少的糖酶,主要为3-O-糖基转移酶,26-O-β-糖苷酶,并对甾体皂甙生物合成的前景进行了展望。     

植物丝氨酸羧肽酶样酰基转移酶的结构、功能和应用

植物丝氨酸羧肽酶样酰基转移酶与丝氨酸羧肽酶相比具有相似的结构特点和很高的同源性,能够催化酰基葡萄糖酯的酰基转移反应,参与植物次生代谢产物的酰基化修饰,丰富天然产物结构多样性,改善化合物水溶性、稳定性等理化性质。本文重点介绍植物来源丝氨酸羧肽酶样酰基转移酶家族的结构特点、催化机制、功能鉴定及其生物催化应用等方面的研究进展,为促进此类酰基转移酶基因的功能表征和利用合成生物技术合成活性次生代谢产物提供参考。     

真菌二萜环化酶的研究进展

二萜类化合物广泛存在于植物和真菌中,是一类具有重要商业价值的天然产物。二萜环化酶作为催化牻牛儿牻牛儿焦磷酸(geranylgeranyl diphosphate,GGPP)形成二萜的关键生物合成酶,在不同生物中的特异性决定了二萜化合物的结构多样性和生物活性多样性。对不同物种中二萜环化酶基因的分离、克隆和表达特征的分析有利于二萜类化合物的生物合成及调控研究。相比植物,真菌二萜化合物和二萜环化酶的研究刚刚起步。本文综述了近几年真菌二萜环化酶的研究进展,重点叙述了真菌二萜化合物的生物合成途径、二萜环化酶的特征及其克隆策略,并对二萜环化酶的代谢工程作了简要概述。     

羰基还原酶及其催化不对称合成大基团手性羟基类化合物的研究进展

手性羟基化合物以其独特的光、热和化学性质广泛应用于医药、农药、精细化工、功能材料等行业.立体专一性羰基还原酶能够直接针对关键手性位点催化不对称还原潜手性底物获得目的手性产物.基于羰基还原酶的底物多样性,具有不同化学结构和功能的醇类、酯类、氨基酸、环氧化合物等重要手性中间体能够通过不对称还原途径实现单一光学活性对映体的高效制备.然而,针对具有应用价值的含有大基团、结构复杂的潜手性羰基化合物,已知的羰基还原酶通常催化活性较低.本文综述了生物催化不对称氧化还原反应的特点和规律及其关键立体选择性羰基还原酶的性质和结构特征,并在此基础上,重点针对大基团手性羟基化合物的不对称合成,总结了羰基还原酶及其催化系统开发和应用的研究进展,并进一步提出解决该关键问题的主要发展策略.     

人参皂苷生物合成和次生代谢工程

人参皂苷属于植物三萜皂苷类化合物,是传统名贵药材人参和西洋参的主要活性成分,具有抗炎、抗氧化作用,还有广泛的抗肿瘤作用。人参皂苷与植物甾醇共享前期代谢途径,通过2, 3-氧化鲨烯环化步骤进入三萜代谢分支途径,在三萜碳环骨架复杂修饰的基础上形成人参皂苷。综述了近年人参皂苷生物合成途径及关键酶基因研究的最新进展,揭示了人参皂苷生物合成的基本途径,对途径中关键酶的基因进行了综述,并结合次生代谢工程技术, 探讨了该技术在人参皂苷生物合成中的应用前景。     

N-[(1,5,9)-trimethyl-decyl]-4 alpha,10-dimethyl-8-aza-trans-decal-3 beta-ol a novel potent inhibitor of 2,3-oxidosqualene cycloartenol and lanosterol cyclases

N-[(1,5,9)-trimethyl-decyl)]-4 alpha,10-dimethyl-8-aza-trans-decal-3 beta-ol 9 was designed to mimic the C9 or C8 high energy carbocationic intermediates postulated during the enzymic cyclization of 2,3-oxidosqualene to different triterpenes. The structurally new molecule 9 inhibits strongly cycloartenol and lanosterol cyclases in maize seedlings and rat liver microsomes respectively, whereas it does not inhibit beta-amyrin cyclase in the plant system. For the first time 2,3-oxidosqualene cycloartenol cyclase and beta-amyrin cyclase have been differentiated in the same plant material by use of a specific inhibitor.     

Affinity labeling of vertebrate oxidosqualene cyclases with a tritiated suicide substrate.

Pig and rat liver oxidosqualene cyclase (OSC) enzymes were purified to homogeneity and showed single bands on SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with molecular masses of 75 kDa (pig) and 78 kDa (rat). Pig liver OSC was purified for the first time (441-fold with a yield of 39%). Chemical affinity labeling of pure or crude preparations of the liver cyclases using the mechanism-based irreversible inhibitor of OSC, [3H]29-methylidene-2,3-oxidosqualene ([3H]29-MOS), showed a single radioactive band at 75 kDa (pig) and 78 kDa (rat). Affinity labeling experiments were also performed with dog and human microsomal preparations and with yeast and plant cyclases. All of the vertebrate OSC enzymes were specifically labeled with [3H]29-MOS and gave a single band with molecular masses ranging from 70 to 80 kDa (rat, 78 kDa; dog, 73 kDa; pig, 75 kDa; and human, 73 kDa). In contrast, yeast lanosterol cyclase and plant cycloartenol cyclase were not labeled, demonstrating subtle differences in the active sites of animal, plant, and fungal enzymes.     

Inhibition of 2,3-oxidosqualene cyclases.

Monocyclic and tricyclic compounds possessing a nitrogen atom situated at a position corresponding to the carbenium ion of high energy intermediates or transition states involved during cyclization of 2,3-oxidosqualene to tetra- and pentacyclic triterpenes have been synthesized. These compounds were tested as inhibitors of 2,3-oxidosqualene cycloartenol, lanosterol-, and beta(alpha)-amyrin-cyclases in vitro and in vivo, and their affinity was compared to that of formerly synthesized 8-aza-bicyclic compounds [Taton et al. (1986) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 138, 764-770]. A monocyclic N-alkyl-hydroxypiperidine was shown to be the strongest inhibitor of the series upon cycloartenol-cyclase (I50 = 1 microM) from maize embryos but was much less effective on the beta(alpha)-amyrin-cyclases from Rubus fruticosus suspension cultures or pea cotyledons. In contrast, 13-aza-tricyclic derivatives displayed little inhibition on 2,3-oxidosqualene cycloartenol-, lanosterol-, and beta(alpha)-amyrin-cyclases. The obtained data exemplify the differences existing in the cyclization process between cycloartenol- (lanosterol-) cyclases on one hand and beta(alpha)-amyrin-cyclases on the other. The results are discussed with respect to current mechanisms postulated for 2,3-oxidosqualene cyclization. Because of its activity in vivo and in vitro the monocyclic N-alkyl-hydroxypiperidine appears to be a potent and promising tool to study sterol biosynthesis regulation.     

Lanosterol synthase in dicotyledonous plants

Sterols are important as structural components of plasma membranes and precursors of steroidal hormones in both animals and plants. Plant sterols show a wide structural variety and significant structural differences from those of animals. To elucidate the origin of structural diversity in plant sterols, their biosynthesis has been extensively studied [Benveniste (2004) Annu. Rev. Plant. Biol. 55: 429, Schaller (2004) Plant Physiol. Biochem. 42: 465]. The differences in the biosynthesis of sterols between plants and animals begin at the step of cyclization of 2,3-oxidosqualene, which is cyclized to lanosterol in animals and to cycloartenol in plants. However, here we show that plants also have the ability to synthesize lanosterol directly from 2,3-oxidosqualene, which may lead to a new pathway to plant sterols. The Arabidopsis gene At3g45130, designated LAS1, encodes a functional lanosterol synthase in plants. A phylogenetic tree showed that LAS1 belongs to the previously uncharacterized branch of oxidosqualene cyclases, which differs from the cycloartenol synthase branch. Panax PNZ on the same branch was also shown to be a lanosterol synthase in a yeast heterologous expression system. The higher diversity of plant sterols may require two biosynthetic routes in steroidal backbone formation.     

Purification of 2,3-oxidosqualene cyclase from rat liver.

A rapid and simple purification of milligram amounts of 2,3-oxidosqualene cyclase, an integral membrane enzyme that catalyzes the cyclization of squalene epoxide to lanosterol, is reported. Several nonionic detergents (Triton X-100, Tween 80, Emulphogene, and lauryl maltoside) were evaluated for solubilization of oxidosqualene cyclase from rat liver microsomes. At a detergent concentration of 5 mg/ml, lauryl maltoside was approximately 10 times more effective than Emulphogene in the solubilization of oxidosqualene cyclase; Triton X-100 and Tween 80 were less effective than Emulphogene as judged by the relative specific activities of the solubilized enzyme. Treatment of microsomes with lauryl maltoside resulted in a selective solubilization of the cyclase with concomitant activation of the enzyme. The solubilized enzyme was purified to homogeneity by fast protein liquid chromatography. The purified enzyme consists of a single subunit that has an apparent molecular weight of 65,000 as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The enzyme obeys saturation kinetics and the apparent Km of (2,3)-oxidosqualene is 15 microM; the apparent kcat/Km is 200 M-1.min-1. An improved assay of the enzyme that utilizes high performance liquid chromatography methods is also described.     

Squalene-hopene cyclases

Hopanoids and sterols are members of a large group of cyclic triterpenoic compounds that have important functions in many prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. They are biochemically synthesized from linear precursors (squalene, 2,3-oxidosqualene) in only one enzymatic step that is catalyzed by squalene-hopene cyclase (SHC) or oxidosqualene cyclase (OSC). SHCs and OSCs are related in amino acid sequences and probably are derived from a common ancestor. The SHC reaction requires the formation of five ring structures, 13 covalent bonds, and nine stereo centers and therefore is one of the most complex one-step enzymatic reactions. We summarize the knowledge of the properties of triterpene cyclases and details of the reaction mechanism of Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius SHC. Properties of other SHCs are included.     

High throughput screening of mutants of oat that are defective in triterpene synthesis

The triterpenes are a large and diverse group of plant natural products that have important functions in plant protection and food quality, and a range of pharmaceutical and other applications. Like sterols, they are synthesised from mevalonate via the isoprenoid pathway, the two pathways diverging after 2,3-oxidosqualene. During triterpene synthesis 2,3-oxidosqualene is cyclised to one of a number of potential products, the most common of these being the pentacyclic triterpene β-amyrin. Plants often produce complex mixtures of conjugated triterpene glycosides which may be derived from a single triterpene skeleton. The delineation, functional analysis and exploitation of triterpene pathways in plants therefore represent a substantial challenge. Here we have carried out high throughput screening to identify mutants of diploid oat (Avena strigosa) that are blocked in the early steps of triterpene synthesis. We also show that mutants that are affected in the first committed step in synthesis of β-amyrin-derived triterpenes, and so are unable to cyclise 2,3-oxidosqualene to β-amyrin (sad1 mutants), accumulate elevated levels of primary sterols. The major differences were in Δ-7-campesterol and Δ-7-avenasterol, which both increased several fold relative to wild-type levels. This is presumably due to accumulation of squalene and 2,3-oxidosqualene and consequent feedback into the sterol pathway, and is consistent with previous reports in which specific oxidosqualene cyclase inhibitors and elicitors of triterpene biosynthesis were shown to have inverse effects on the flux through the sterol and triterpene pathways.     

Discovery of genes for ginsenoside biosynthesis by analysis of ginseng expressed sequence tags

Expressed sequence tags (ESTs) provide a valuable tool that can be used to identify genes in secondary metabolite biosynthesis. Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A Meyer) is a medicinal plant that accumulates ginsenosides in roots. We sequenced 11,636 ESTs from five ginseng libraries in order to create a gene resource for biosynthesis of ginsenosides, which are thought to be the major active component in roots. Only 59% of the ginseng ESTs exhibited significant homology to previously known polypeptide sequences. Stress- and pathogen-response proteins were most abundant in 4-year-old ginseng roots. ESTs involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis were identified by a keyword search of BLASTX results and a domain search of ginseng ESTs. We identified 4 oxidosqualene cyclase candidates involved in the cyclization reaction of 2,3-oxidosqualene, 9 nine cytochrome P450 and 12 glycosyltransferse candidates, which may be involved in modification of the triterpene backbone.Abbreviations cDNA Complementary DNA - ESTs Expressed sequence tagsCommunicated by I.S. Chung     

Investigation of the potential for triterpene synthesis in rice through genome mining and metabolic engineering

The first committed step in sterol biosynthesis in plants involves the cyclization of 2,3-oxidosqualene by the oxidosqualene cyclase (OSC) enzyme cycloartenol synthase. 2,3-Oxidosqualene is also a precursor for triterpene synthesis. Antimicrobial triterpenes are common in dicots, but seldom found in monocots, with the notable exception of oat. Here, through genome mining and metabolic engineering, we investigate the potential for triterpene synthesis in rice. The first two steps in the oat triterpene pathway are catalysed by a divergent OSC (AsbAS1) and a cytochrome P450 (CYP51). The genes for these enzymes form part of a metabolic gene cluster. To investigate the origins of triterpene synthesis in monocots, we analysed systematically the OSC and CYP51 gene families in rice. We also engineered rice for elevated triterpene content. We discovered a total of 12 OSC and 12 CYP51 genes in rice and uncovered key events in the evolution of triterpene synthesis. We further showed that the expression of AsbAS1 in rice leads to the accumulation of the simple triterpene, β-amyrin. These findings provide new insights into the evolution of triterpene synthesis in monocots and open up opportunities for metabolic engineering for disease resistance in rice and other cereals.