2000年以来有毒蘑菇研究新进展

误食毒蘑菇而中毒一直被认为是一个对人类健康造成威胁的全球性问题,也是我国食物中毒事件中导致死亡的最主要因素。对2000年以来在有毒蘑菇新种类、新毒素与新症状、有毒蘑菇鉴定及毒素检测新方法、有毒蘑菇中毒机理、毒素基因克隆、中毒治疗以及鹅膏肽类毒素治疗肿瘤等领域取得的新进展进行了综述,并对一些热点研究领域做了展望。     

毒蘑菇的组学研究

毒蘑菇似乎是一个永恒的话题：一方面毒蘑菇每年在世界范围内造成相当数量的人中毒甚至死亡事件;另一方面,毒蘑菇的价值也逐渐被认识,应用毒素进行癌症等疾病治疗的研究取得了重要成果。近年来,毒蘑菇的基因组等组学研究迅速升温,极大地促进了这一领域的研究,揭示了一些毒素的生源合成基因及合成机制,几种毒素合成的进化历史也日益清晰。本文总结了近10余年来毒蘑菇研究在基因组、转录组、蛋白组学等方面取得的最新研究进展,归纳了研究的主要方向和动态,并展望了未来的发展趋势。     

Multiple fatal mycetism caused byAmanita virosa in Mexico

Mushroom poisonings caused by amatoxins are mostly lethal. Information about mycetisms caused by white species ofAmanita is scarce. The present paper describes a case of mushroom poisoning caused byA. virosa. A prolongated latency period (6–10 hours), followed by cholera-like, improvement and visceral complication phases confirmed the amatoxin poisoning. The consumption of about 3 pounds of the toadstool by seven persons caused the death of five. Two patients survive the ingestion.     

Wenig bekannte Pilzvergiftungen

Recent and still little known fungus poisonings This research paper gives an overview of recent fungus poisonings, their symptoms, and, as far as known, their toxins. Intoxications often are the consequence of the confusion with edible or “medicinal” mushrooms. The toxic species Freckled Dapperling (Lepiota aspera), Angel's Wing (Pleurocybella porrigens), Jack O'Lantern (Omphalaotus olearius) and Clitocybe amoenolens are found in Central Europe. It is little know that a rich morel dish can cause neurologic symptoms. Species from Asia became acquainted, that can provoke most serious intoxications. The “Yunnan Sudden Unexplained Death‐Syndrome” could be explained by the consumption of the “Little white mushroom” (Trogia venenata). The often fatal rhabdomyolysis after the consumption of Russula subnigricans can be traced back to the effect of Cycloprop‐2ene‐carboxylicacid. Particularly fatal is the confusion of the mushroom “Reishi” (Ganoderma lucidum), highly esteemed as the “mushroom of immortality”, with Ganoderma neojaponicum or with Podostroma cornu – damae, the most poisonous mushroom worldwide.     

Potential benefits and harms: a review of poisonous mushrooms in the world

Mushrooms have long been considered as delicacies as well as used as important dietary supplements and food. However, there are major concerns with poisonous mushrooms as these pose threats to public health and safety. In this paper, we provide a review focusing on poisonous mushrooms, their toxins, symptoms and utilizations. In addition, this paper establishes a poisonous mushroom list which includes 643 species from two phyla, 16 orders, 51 families and 148 genera. The toxicity of all these species was verified and 332 species were ranked as P1 signifying that these species have toxic studies and or clinical poisoning case records and 311 species were P2 meaning they had previously been recorded as poisonous in other studies. Furthermore, we discuss advances in technology including how genomic studies could be used as a breakthrough tool in the field of toxic mushrooms. With this comprehensive review, we aim to promote public awareness of poisonous mushrooms, including how to avoid mushroom poisoning, and how to better utilize poisonous mushroom resources.     

Explaining Dioscorides' "double difference": why are some mushrooms poisonous, and do they signal their unprofitability?

The adaptive significance of toxins in mushrooms has received very little consideration, although it is clear that poisons have appeared (and/or disappeared) many times in mushrooms' evolutionary history. One possibility is that poisons have evolved in some mushroom species to deter their consumption by would-be fungivores before spore dispersal. If this is so, then one might expect poisonous mushrooms to signal their unprofitability in some way. In this study, we have conducted the first formal analysis of the ecological and morphological traits associated with edible and poisonous mushrooms in North America and Europe. Poisonous mushrooms do not tend to be more colorful or aggregated than edible mushrooms, but they are more likely to exhibit distinctive odors even when phylogenetic relationships are accounted for. This raises the intriguing possibility that some poisonous species of mushrooms have evolved warning odors (and perhaps tastes) to enhance avoidance learning by fungivores.     

Methods for chromatographic determination of amanitins and related toxins in biological samples

Methods for the chromatographic determination of amanitins, toxins of Amanita phalloides (Fr.), Link mushrooms and related toxins are reviewed; particular emphasis is given to high-performance liquid chromatographic methods. The main chemical and toxicological aspects are discussed, but the focus of the present review is on the analytical problems arising in a laboratory charged with the setting up of a procedure which can direct the appropriate clinical management of an intoxicated patient or solve a forensic case.     

Biotechnological significance of toxic marine dinoflagellates

Dinoflagellates are microalgae that are associated with the production of many marine toxins. These toxins poison fish, other wildlife and humans. Dinoflagellate-associated human poisonings include paralytic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, and ciguatera fish poisoning. Dinoflagellate toxins and bioactives are of increasing interest because of their commercial impact, influence on safety of seafood, and potential medical and other applications. This review discusses biotechnological methods of identifying toxic dinoflagellates and detecting their toxins. Potential applications of the toxins are discussed. A lack of sufficient quantities of toxins for investigational purposes remains a significant limitation. Producing quantities of dinoflagellate bioactives requires an ability to mass culture them. Considerations relating to bioreactor culture of generally fragile and slow-growing dinoflagellates are discussed. Production and processing of dinoflagellates to extract bioactives, require attention to biosafety considerations as outlined in this review.     

Edible wild mushrooms of the Cofre de Perote region,Veracruz, Mexico: An ethnomycological study of common names and uses

A field study in the Cofre de Perote region found that edible mushrooms play an important role in the socio-economics activities of the local population. Several very old common names indicate a long-standing traditional knowledge about this regional resource. Recent changes in marketing mushrooms are evident.     

Malarial toxins and the regulation of parasite density

For over a century it has been recognized that many of the clinical symptoms of malaria are caused by toxins released by rupturing schizonts, but it is only in the past few years that the underlying mechanisms have begun to be understood. Dominic Kwiatkowski here focuses on the toxins that cause malaria fever by stimulating host cells to produce tumour necrosis factor a (TNF) and other pyrogenic cytokines. Both TNF and fever have antiparasite properties, and it is proposed that the release of these toxins plays an important role in the regulation of parasite density within the host. Cerebral malaria is related to excessive TNF production. Recent data indicate that this can be the consequence of genetic variation in the host's propensity to produce TNF.     

Therapeutic potential of culinary-medicinal mushrooms for the management of neurodegenerative diseases: diversity,metabolite, and mechanism

Mushrooms have long been used not only as food but also for the treatment of various ailments. Although at its infancy, accumulated evidence suggested that culinary-medicinal mushrooms may play an important role in the prevention of many age-associated neurological dysfunctions, including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. Therefore, efforts have been devoted to a search for more mushroom species that may improve memory and cognition functions. Such mushrooms include Hericium erinaceus, Ganoderma lucidum, Sarcodon spp., Antrodia camphorata, Pleurotus giganteus, Lignosus rhinocerotis, Grifola frondosa, and many more. Here, we review over 20 different brain-improving culinary-medicinal mushrooms and at least 80 different bioactive secondary metabolites isolated from them. The mushrooms (either extracts from basidiocarps/mycelia or isolated compounds) reduced beta amyloid-induced neurotoxicity and had anti-acetylcholinesterase, neurite outgrowth stimulation, nerve growth factor (NGF) synthesis, neuroprotective, antioxidant, and anti-(neuro)inflammatory effects. The in vitro and in vivo studies on the molecular mechanisms responsible for the bioactive effects of mushrooms are also discussed. Mushrooms can be considered as useful therapeutic agents in the management and/or treatment of neurodegeneration diseases. However, this review focuses on in vitro evidence and clinical trials with humans are needed.     

Variation of microcystins, cyanobacterial hepatotoxins, in Anabaena spp. as a function of growth stimuli.

Cyanobacterial hepatotoxins, microcystins, are specific inhibitors of serine/threonine protein phosphatases and potent tumor promoters. They have caused several poisonings of animals and also pose a health hazard for humans through the use of water for drinking and recreation. Different strains of the same cyanobacterial species may variously be nontoxic, be neurotoxic, or produce several microcystin variants. It is poorly understood how the amount of toxins varies in a single strain. This laboratory study shows the importance of external growth stimuli in regulating the levels and relative proportions of different microcystin variants in two strains of filamentous, nitrogen-fixing Anabaena spp. The concentration of the toxins in the cells increased with phosphorus. High temperatures (25 to 30 degrees C), together with the highest levels of light studied (test range, 2 to 100 mumol m-2 s-1), decreased their amount. Different structural variants of microcystins responded differently to growth stimuli. Variants of microcystin (MCYST)-LR correlated with temperatures below 25 degrees C, and those of MCYST-RR correlated with higher temperatures. Nitrogen added into the growth medium and increasing temperatures increased the proportion of microcystin variants demethylated in amino acid 3. All variants remained mostly intracellular. Time was the most important factor causing the release of the toxins into the growth medium. Time, nitrogen added into the growth medium, and light fluxes above 25 mumol m-2 s-1 significantly increased the concentrations of the dissolved toxins. According to the results, it thus seems that the reduction of phosphorus loads in bodies of water might play a role in preventing the health hazards that toxic cyanobacterial water blooms pose, not only by decreasing the cyanobacteria but also by decreasing their toxin content.     

The Mechanisms Underlying α-Amanitin Resistance in Drosophila melanogaster: A Microarray Analysis

The rapid evolution of toxin resistance in animals has important consequences for the ecology of species and our economy. Pesticide resistance in insects has been a subject of intensive study; however, very little is known about how Drosophila species became resistant to natural toxins with ecological relevance, such as α-amanitin that is produced in deadly poisonous mushrooms. Here we performed a microarray study to elucidate the genes, chromosomal loci, molecular functions, biological processes, and cellular components that contribute to the α-amanitin resistance phenotype in Drosophila melanogaster. We suggest that toxin entry blockage through the cuticle, phase I and II detoxification, sequestration in lipid particles, and proteolytic cleavage of α-amanitin contribute in concert to this quantitative trait. We speculate that the resistance to mushroom toxins in D. melanogaster and perhaps in mycophagous Drosophila species has evolved as cross-resistance to pesticides, other xenobiotic substances, or environmental stress factors.     

Diagnosis of acute intoxications in critically ill patients: focus on biomarkers – part 2: markers for specific intoxications

Abstract

In medical intensive care units, acute intoxications contribute to a large proportion of all patients. Epidemiology and a basic overview on this topic were presented in part one. The purpose of this second part regarding toxicological biomarkers in the ICU setting focuses on specific poisons and toxins. Following the introduction of anion and osmol gap in part one, it’s relevance in toxic alcohols and other biomarkers for these poisonings are presented within this publication. Furthermore, the role of markers in the blood, urine and cerebrospinal fluid for several intoxications is evaluated. Specific details are presented, amongst others, for cardiovascular drug poisoning, paracetamol (acetaminophen), ethanol, pesticides, ricin and yew tree intoxications. Detailed biomarkers and therapeutic decision tools are shown for carbon monoxide (CO) and cyanide (CN^-) poisoning. Also, biomarkers in environmental toxicological situations such as mushroom poisoning and scorpion stings are presented.     

Protein toxins from plants and bacteria: Probes for intracellular transport and tools in medicine

A number of protein toxins produced by bacteria and plants enter eukaryotic cells and inhibit protein synthesis enzymatically. These toxins include the plant toxin ricin and the bacterial toxin Shiga toxin, which we will focus on in this article. Although a threat to human health, toxins are valuable tools to discover and characterize cellular processes such as endocytosis and intracellular transport. Bacterial infections associated with toxin production are a problem worldwide. Increased knowledge about toxins is important to prevent and treat these diseases in an optimal way. Interestingly, toxins can be used for diagnosis and treatment of cancer.     

中国鹅膏菌属(担子菌)的物种多样性

鹅膏菌属（Ａｍａｎｉｔａ）是一个近世界性广布的大属,全球已被描述而又被承认的有近５００种。在文献中,我国此属已记载约２００种。然而,许多种都是原初描述于欧洲或北美的种类。近来的研究表明,东亚的鹅膏菌独特且有其自身的分布范围。东亚的有些种虽与产于欧洲或北美的某些种相似,但仔细的野外观察,详尽的形态解剖学和分子进化生物学研究结果表明,东亚的鹅膏菌是独立的分类群。在欧洲,人们有采集著名食菌恺撒鹅膏菌的习     

Hepatotoxic mushroom poisoning: diagnosis and management

Hepatotoxic mushroom poisoning (due to Amanita, Lepiota and Galerina species) may be considered as a real medical emergency, since an early diagnosis and immediate treatment are required for a successful outcome. In this review the physio-pathological features and the clinical picture of amatoxin poisonings are described, as the basis for diagnosis and therapeutic decisions. The treatment schedule proposed is analyzed in some points: Symptomatic and supportive measures, toxin removal and extraction procedures, and the possibility of using antidotes. Some parameters with prognostic significance are commented on. Finally, the mortality rate and its evolution throughout the present century is also considered.     

Are cyanobacteria involved in Ciguatera Fish Poisoning-like outbreaks in New Caledonia?

From 2001 to 2005, numerous cases of seafood poisonings were reported in a tribe from Lifou (Loyalty Islands Province, New Caledonia) of which 35 were thoroughly examined. Observations outlined by the epidemiological and clinical data (including severity and rapid onset of certain symptoms following consumption of either giant clams (Tridacna spp.) or grazing and molluscivorous fish together with the apparent inefficacy of traditional remedies, were not in favour of a classical Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) outbreak. From 2005 onwards, an environmental offshore survey of the affected area was conducted. Screening of the damaged coral area revealed the presence of large populations of cyanobacteria identified as Hydrocoleum Kützing, but the absence of Gambierdiscus spp., the well-known dinoflagellate causative agent of CFP. In vivo and in vitro toxicological studies of extracts obtained from cyanobacteria and giant clams, strongly suggested the co-occurrence of ciguatoxin-like, anatoxin-like and paralytic shellfish toxins in these samples.These new findings shed new light on the complexity of the CFP symptomatology and treatment and also on the diversity and origin of the CFP toxins. Furthermore they provide new evidence of the overall variability of seafood poisonings following the ingestion of different sea products living in a marine environment where significant harmful populations of microalgae and cyanobacteria coexist.This is the first report on the involvement of cyanobacteria in CFP-like outbreaks following the consumption of giant clams or fish specimens. Consequently, it is recommended that CFP risk assessment programs now include monitoring of cyanobacteria besides the obvious screening of CFP-promoting dinoflagellates.     

Mushrooms for Life among the Jotï in the Venezuelan Guayana

Mushrooms for Life among the Jotï in the Venezuelan Guayana. This paper explores the relevance of mushrooms in mythology and daily life among the Jotï, an indigenous group inhabiting the rain forests of the Venezuelan Guayana. It is reported here how a personal experience of the author in the field stimulated deeper research into the religious symbolism surrounding mushrooms and their role in Jotï cosmology, ritual, and life dynamics. Different categories of mushroom usage are described, including edible, medicinal, and ritual uses. Mushrooms seem to be more important to the Jotï than to most Amazonian groups. Most significantly, certain species of mushrooms are key ingredients in medicinal and ritual preparations used throughout the Jotï life cycle in ways that reflect their worldview and mythology.