A Petunia hybrida chloroplast DNA region, close to one of the inverted repeats, shows sequence homology with the Euglena gracilis chloroplast DNA region that carries the putative replication origin

Summary Three distinct chloroplast (cp) DNA fragments from Petunia hybrida, which promote autonomous replication in yeast, were mapped on the chloroplast genome. Sequence analysis revealed that these fragments (called ARS A, B and C) have a high AT content, numerous short direct and inverted repeats and at least one yeast ARS consensus sequence 5A/TTTTATPuTTTA/T, essential for yeast ARS activity. ARS A and B also showed the presence of (semi-)conserved sequences, present in all Chlamydomanas reinhardii cpDNA regions that promote autonomous replication in yeast (ARS sequences) or in C. reinhardii (ARC sequences). A 431 bp BamHI/EcoRI fragment, close to one of the inverted repeats and adjacent to the ARS B subfragment contains an AT-rich stretch of about 100 nucleotides that show extensive homology with an Euglena gracilis cpDNA fragment which is part of the replication origin region. This conserved region contains direct and inverted repeats, stem-and-loop structures can be folded and it contains an ARS consensus sequence. In the near vicinity a GC-rich block is present. All these features make this cpDNA region the best candidate for being the origin of replication of P. hybrida cpDNA.     

Chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA composition of triploid and tetraploid somatic hybrids between Lycopersicon esculentum and Solanum tuberosum

The chloroplast (cp) DNA type and mitochondrial (mt) DNA composition of 17 somatic hybrids between a cytoplasmic albino tomato and monoploid potato (A7-hybrids) and 18 somatic hybrids between a nitrate reductase-deficient tomato and monoploid potato (C7-hybrids) were analyzed. Thirteen A7-hybrids and 9 C7-hybrids were triploids (with one potato genome); the other hybrids were tetraploid. As expected, all A7-hybrids contained potato cpDNA. Of the C7-hybrids 7 had tomato cpDNA, 10 had potato cpDNA and 1 hybrid contained both tomato and potato cpDNA. The mtDNA composition of the hybrids was analyzed by hybridization of Southern blots with four mtDNA-specific probes. The mtDNAs in the hybrids had segregated independently from the cpDNAs. Nuclear DNA composition (i.e. one or two potato genomes) did not influence the chloroplast type in the C7-hybrids, nor the mtDNA composition of A7- or C7-hybrids. From the cosegregation of specific mtDNA fragments we inferred that both tomato and potato mtDNAs probably have a coxII gene closely linked to 18S+5S rRNA genes. In tomato, atpA, and in potato, atp6 seems to be linked to these mtDNA genes.     

Identification of the entire set of transferred chloroplast DNA sequences in the mitochondrial genome of rice

Summary The entire set of transferred chloroplast DNA sequences in the mitochondrial genome of rice (Oryza sativa cv. Nipponbare) was identified using clone banks that cover the chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes. The mitochondrial fragments that were homologous to chloroplast DNA were mapped and sequenced. The nucleotide sequences around the termini of integrated chloroplast sequences in the rice mtDNA revealed no common sequences or structures that might enhance the transfer of DNA. Sixteen chloroplast sequences, ranging from 32 bases to 6.8 kb in length, were found to be dispersed throughout the rice mitochondrial genome. The total length of these sequences is equal to approximately 6% (22 kb) of the rice mitochondrial genome and to 19% of the chloroplast genome. The transfer of segments of chloroplast DNA seems to have occurred at different times, both before and after the divergence of rice and maize. The mitochondrial genome appears to have been rearranged after the transfer of chloroplast sequences as a result of recombination at these sequences. The rice mitochondrial DNA contains nine intact tRNA genes and three tRNA pseudogenes derived from the chloroplast genome.     

Variable copy number DNA sequences in rice

Summary We have cloned two types of variable copy number DNA sequences from the rice embryo genome. One of these sequences, which was cloned in pRB301, was amplified about 50-fold during callus formation and diminished in copy number to the embryonic level during regeneration. The other clone, named pRB401, showed the reciprocal pattern. The copy numbers of both sequences were changed even in the early developmental stage and eliminated from nuclear DNA along with growth of the plant. Sequencing analysis of the pRB301 insert revealed some open reading frames and direct repeat structures, but corresponding sequences were not identified in the EMBL and LASL DNA databases. Sequencing of the nuclear genomic fragment cloned in pRB401 revealed the presence of the 3rps12-rps7 region of rice chloroplast DNA. Our observations suggest that during callus formation (dedifferentiation), regeneration and the growth process the copy numbers of some DNA sequences are variable and that nuclear integrated chloroplast DNA acts as a variable copy number sequence in the rice genome. Based on data showing a common sequence in mitochondria and chloroplast DNA of maize (Stern and Lonsdale 1982) and that the rps12 gene of tobacco chloroplast DNA is a divided gene (Torazawa et al. 1986), it is suggested that the sequence on the inverted repeat structure of chloroplast DNA may have the character of a movable genetic element.     

Abundance of plastid DNA insertions in nuclear genomes of rice and Arabidopsis

Pairwise comparison of whole plastid and draft nuclear genomic sequences of Arabidopsis thaliana and Oryza sativa L. ssp. indica shows that rice nuclear genomic sequences contain homologs of plastid DNA covering about 94 kb (83%) of plastid genome and including one or more full-length intact (without mutations resulting in premature stop codons) homologues of 26 known protein-coding (KPC) plastid genes. By contrast, only about 20 kb (16%) of chloroplast DNA, including a single intact plastid-derived KPC gene, is presented in the nucleus of A. thaliana. Sixteen rice plastid genes have at least one nuclear copy without any mutation or with only synonymous substitutions. Nuclear copies for other ten plastid genes contain both synonymous and non-synonymous substitutions. Multiple ESTs for 25 out of 26 KPC genes were also found, as well as putative promoters for some of them. The study of substitutions pattern shows that some of nuclear homologues of plastid genes may be functional and/or are under the pressure of the positive natural selection. The similar comparative analysis performed on rice chromosome 1 revealed 27 contigs containing plastid-derived sequences, totalling about 84 kb and covering two thirds of chloroplast DNA, with the intact nuclear copies of 26 different KPC genes. One of these contigs, AP003280, includes almost 57 kb (45%) of chloroplast genome with the intact copies of 22 KPC genes. At the same time, we observed that relative locations of homologues in plastid DNA and the nuclear genome are significantly different.     

Species relationships in the Hordeum murinum aggregate viewed from chloroplast DNA restriction fragment patterns

Summary Three annual widespread species of Hordeum were investigated by the fragment pattern method on their chloroplast (cp) DNA. The species were H. glaucum, H. leporinum and H. murinum; H. vulgare was surveyed for comparison. Twelve restriction enzymes were used, nine recognizing 6 bp, one 5 bp and two 4 bp, thus, randomly surveyed, a total of 2,113 bp or 1.6% of the cp genome. Differences in patterns were found in three enzymes, HindIII, CfoI and MspI. CfoI characterizes H. glaucum from the other two species. HindIII and MspI revealed polymorphisms within species. These results confirm previous numerical taxonomic relationships among these three closely related species. Furthermore, cpDNA polymorphism in Hordeum is discussed in view of earlier reports on cpDNA polymorphism in H. vulgare. The taxonomic implications of cpDNA polymorphism are discussed after reviewing several articles using the fragment pattern method on cpDNA. The importance of using material from several populations representative of a species is stressed.     

RECA plays a dual role in the maintenance of chloroplast genome stability in Physcomitrella patens

Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) encodes essential genes for chloroplast functions, including photosynthesis. Homologous recombination occurs frequently in cpDNA; however, its significance and underlying mechanism remain poorly understood. In this study, we analyzed the role of a nuclear‐encoded chloroplast‐localized homolog of RecA recombinase, which is a key factor in homologous recombination in bacteria, in the moss Physcomitrella patens. Complete knockout (KO) of the P. patens chloroplast RecA homolog RECA2 caused a modest growth defect and conferred sensitivity to methyl methanesulfonate and UV. The KO mutant exhibited low recovery of cpDNA from methyl methanesulfonate damage, suggesting that RECA2 knockout impairs repair of damaged cpDNA. The RECA2 KO mutant also exhibited reduced cpDNA copy number and an elevated level of cpDNA molecule resulting from aberrant recombination between short dispersed repeats (13–63 bp), indicating that the RECA2 KO chloroplast genome was destabilized. Taken together, these data suggest a dual role for RECA2 in the maintenance of chloroplast genome stability: RECA2 suppresses aberrant recombination between short dispersed repeats and promotes repair of damaged DNA.     

Diversity and evolution of chloroplast DNA in Triticum and Aegilops as revealed by restriction fragment analysis

Summary Restriction fragment analysis of chloroplast (cp) DNAs from 35 wheat (Triticum) and Aegilops species, including their 42 accessions, was carried out with the use of 13 restriction enzymes to clarify variation in their cpDNAs. Fourteen fragment size mutations (deletions/insertions) and 33 recognition site changes were detected among 209 restriction sites sampled. Based on these results, the 42 accessions of wheat-Aegilops could be classified into 16 chloroplast genome types. Most polyploids and their related diploids showed identical restriction fragment patterns, indicating the conservatism of the chloroplast genome during speciation, and maternal lineages of most polyploids were disclosed. This classification of cpDNAs was principally in agreement with that of the plasma types assigned according to phenotypes arising from nucleus-cytoplasm interactions. These mutations detected by restriction fragment analysis were mapped on the physical map of common wheat cpDNA, which was constructed with 13 restriction endonucleases. Length mutations were more frequently observed in some regions than in others: in a 16.0 kilo base pairs (kbp) of DNA region, including rbcL and petA genes, 6 of 14 length mutations were concentrated. This indicates that hot spot regions exist for deletions/insertions in chloroplast genome. On the other hand, 33 recognition site mutations seemed to be distributed equally throughout the genome, except in the inverted repeat region where only one recognition site change was observed. Base substitution rate (p) of cpDNA was similar to that of other plants, such as Brassica, pea and Lycopersicon, showing constant base substitution rates among related taxa and slow evolution of cpDNA compared with animal mitochondrial DNA. Phylogenetic relationships among Triticum and Aegilops species were discussed, based on the present data.Contributions no. 45 and no. 490 from the Kihara Institute for Biological Research, Yokohama City University and the Laboratory of Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyoto University, respectively.     

Chloroplast DNA variation in Populus. III. Novel chloroplast DNA variants in natural Populus x canadensis hybrids

A rare phenomenon of the occurrence of novel non-parental chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) variants in natural sexual interspecific hybrids between Populus deltoides var deltoides and P. nigra, P. x canadensis is described. Restriction fragment variation of cpDNA in 17 P. x canadensis cultivars was examined and compared with that of representative samples of P. deltoides and P. nigra using 83 combinations of 16 restriction enzymes and six Petunia hybrida cpDNA probes. Twelve cultivars had one to five novel non-parental cpDNA fragments in the chloroplast genome region homologous to the 9.0-kb PstI cpDNA fragment of Petunia from the large single-copy region.     

Sequence organisation in nuclear DNA from Physarum polycephalum: Genomic organisation of DNA segments containing foldback sequences

DNA clones containing foldback sequences, derived from Physarum polycephalum nuclear DNA, can be classified according to their pattern of hydridisation to Southern blots of genomic DNA. One group of DNA clones map to unique DNA loci when used as a probe to restriction digests of Physarum nuclear DNA. These cloned segments appear to contain dispersed repetitive sequence elements located at many hundreds of sites in the genome. Similar patterns of hybridisation are generated when these cloned DNA probes are annealed to DNA restriction fragments of genomic DNA obtained from a number of different Physarum strains, indicating that no detectable alteration has occurred at these genomic loci subsequent to the divergence of the strains as a result of the introduction or deletion of mobile genetic elements. However, deletion of segments of some cloned DNA fragments occurs following their propagation in Escherichia coli. A second, distinct group of clones are shown to be derived from highly methylated segments of Physarum DNA which contain very abundant repetitive sequences with regular, though complex, arrangements of restriction sites at their various genomic locations. It is suggested that these DNA segments contain clustered repetitive sequence elements. The results lead to the conclusion that foldback elements in Physarum DNA are located in segments of the genome which display markedly different patterns of sequence organisation and degree of DNA methylation.     

Chloroplast DNA insertions into the nuclear genome of rice: the genes,sites and ages of insertion involved

Rice (Oryza sativa) is one of three predominant grain crops, and its nuclear and organelle genomes have been sequenced. Following genome analysis revealed many exchanges of DNA sequences between the nuclear and organelle genomes. In this study, a total of 45 chloroplast DNA insertions more than 2 kb in length were detected in rice nuclear genome. A homologous recombination mechanism is expected for those chloroplast insertions with high similarity between their flanking sequences. Only five chloroplast insertions with high sequence similarity between two flanking sequences from an insertion were found in the 45 insertions, suggesting that rice might follow the non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) repair of double-stranded breaks mechanism, which is suggested to be common to all eukaryotes. Our studies indicate that the most chloroplast insertions occurred at a nuclear region characterized by a sharp change of repetitive sequence density. One potential explanation is that regions such as this might be susceptible target sites or “hotspots” of DNA damage. Our results also suggest that the insertion of retrotransposon elements or non-chloroplast DNA into chloroplast DNA insertions may contribute significantly to their fragmentation process. Moreover, based on chloroplast insertions in nuclear genomes of two subspecies (indica and japonica) of cultivated rice, our results strongly suggest that they diverged during 0.06–0.22 million years ago. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

The complete chloroplast DNA sequence of the green alga Oltmannsiellopsis viridis reveals a distinctive quadripartite architecture in the chloroplast genome of early diverging ulvophytes

Background  

The phylum Chlorophyta contains the majority of the green algae and is divided into four classes. The basal position of the Prasinophyceae has been well documented, but the divergence order of the Ulvophyceae, Trebouxiophyceae and Chlorophyceae is currently debated. The four complete chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) sequences presently available for representatives of these classes have revealed extensive variability in overall structure, gene content, intron composition and gene order. The chloroplast genome of Pseudendoclonium (Ulvophyceae), in particular, is characterized by an atypical quadripartite architecture that deviates from the ancestral type by a large inverted repeat (IR) featuring an inverted rRNA operon and a small single-copy (SSC) region containing 14 genes normally found in the large single-copy (LSC) region. To gain insights into the nature of the events that led to the reorganization of the chloroplast genome in the Ulvophyceae, we have determined the complete cpDNA sequence of Oltmannsiellopsis viridis, a representative of a distinct, early diverging lineage.     

Sequencing cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) chloroplast genomes identifies differences between chilling-tolerant and -susceptible cucumber lines.

Chilling injury in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is conditioned by maternal factors, and the sequencing of its chloroplast genome could lead to the identification of economically important candidate genes. Complete sequencing of cucumber chloroplast (cp)DNA was facilitated by the development of 414 consensus chloroplast sequencing primers (CCSPs) from conserved cpDNA sequences of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana L.), spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.), and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) cpDNAs, using degenerative primer technologies. Genomic sequence analysis led to the construction of 301 CCSPs and 72 cucumber chloroplast-specific sequencing primers (CSSPs), which were used for the complete sequencing of cpDNA of Gy14 (155 525 bp) and 'Chipper' (155 524 bp) cucumber lines, which are, respectively, susceptible and tolerant to chilling injury (4 degrees C for 5.5 h) in the first leaf stage. Comparative cpDNA sequence analyses revealed that 1 sequence span (located between genes trnK and rps16) and 2 nucleotides (located in genes atpB and ycf1) differed between chilling-susceptible and -tolerant lines. These sequence differences correspond to previously reported maternally inherited differences in chilling response between reciprocal F1 progeny derived from these lines. Sequence differences at these 3 cpDNA sites were also detected in a genetically diverse array of cucumber germplasm with different chilling responses. These and previously reported results suggest that 1 or several of these sequences could be responsible for the observed response to chilling injury in cucumber. The comprehensive sequencing of cpDNA of cucumber by CCSPs and CSSPs indicates that these primers have immediate applications in the analysis of cpDNAs from other dicotyledonous species and the investigation of evolutionary relationships.     

Variability of chloroplast DNA and nuclear ribosomal DNA in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and its wild relatives

Chloroplast DNA (cp) and nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) variation was investigated in 45 accessions of cultivated and wild Manihot species. Ten independent mutations, 8 point mutations and 2 length mutations were identified, using eight restriction enzymes and 12 heterologous cpDNA probes from mungbean. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis defined nine distinct chloroplast types, three of which were found among the cultivated accessions and six among the wild species. Cladistic analysis of the cpDNA data using parsimony yielded a hypothetical phylogeny of lineages among the cpDNAs of cassava and its wild relatives that is congruent with morphological evolutionary differentiation in the genus. The results of our survey of cpDNA, together with rDNA restriction site change at the intergenic spacer region and rDNA repeat unit length variation (using rDNA cloned fragments from taro as probe), suggest that cassava might have arisen from the domestication of wild tuberous accessions of some Manihot species, followed by intensive selection. M. esculenta subspp flabellifolia is probably a wild progenitor. Introgressive hybridization with wild forms and pressures to adapt to the widely varying climates and topography in which cassava is found might have enhanced the crop's present day variability.     

Characterization and localization of repetitive DNA sequences in the ornamental Alstroemeria aurea Graham

 Three repetitive DNA sequences were isolated from a genomic DNA library of the ornamental Alstroemeria aurea Graham. Two repeats, A001-I and A001-II, were quite homologous and highly A. aurea-specific. A001-I was a 217-bp sequence with several telomeric TTTAGGG repeats at the 5′ end and a unique sequence of 98 bp at the other end. The third repeat, A001-IV, was a 840-bp sequence which contained two sub-sequences of 56 and 74 bp respectively, previously found in chloroplast (cp) DNA of tobacco and spinach and to a lesser extent in the cpDNA of maize and rice. Repeat A001-IV was not species-specific and its hybridization signal was weaker than the other repeats. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) revealed the A. aurea-specific repeats to be located in the heterochromatic regions of all A. aurea chromosomes. The differences in FISH pattern make them useful tools for karyotype analysis. The non-species-specific sequence A001-IV gave a dispersed signal over all the Alstroemeria chromosomes in an interspecific hybrid. The potential use of these repetitive DNA sequences for the study of phylogenetic relationships within the genus Alstroemeria is discussed. Received: 24 November 1996/Accepted: 20 December 1996     

Topological incongruence between nuclear and chloroplast DNA trees suggesting hybridization in the urophyllum group of the genus Fagopyrum (Polygonaceae)

We performed phylogenetic analyses of Fagopyrum species in the urophyllum group based on nucleotide sequences of two nuclear genes, FLORICAULA/LEAFY (FLO/LFY) and AGAMOUS (AG), and three segments of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA), rbcL-accD, trnK intron, and trnC-rpoB spacer. The FLO/LFY and AG sequences turned out to be phylogenetically more informative at the intrageneric level than the cpDNA sequences. Congruence among these gene trees, inferred by a maximum-likelihood (ML) method, demonstrated that topologies were partially incongruent between the nuclear and chloroplast DNA phylogenies. The nuclear DNA sequence data supported a monophyletic relation of F. statice, F. gilesii, and F. jinshaense, whereas the former two species formed another monophyletic relation with the F. capillatum-F. gracilipes-F. gracilipedoides-F. rubifolium clade excluding F. jinshaense in the synthetic cpDNA phylogeny. In addition, two divergent sequences of FLO/LFY were found in F. rubifolium (tetraploid). One of these was sister to F. gracilipedoides and another was sister to F. statice, and a monophyletic relation of these two genes was rejected by a bootstrap analysis. These results suggest that hybridization may have occurred during diversification of Fagopyrum species in the urophyllum group, and that F. rubifolium is possibly allotetraploid species.     

REPEAT AND SINGLE COPY SEQUENCES ARE DIFFERENTIALLY CONSERVED IN THE EVOLUTION OF KELP CHLOROPLAST DNA1

A method for the isolation of total blade, chloroplast and nuclear DNAs from kelp is described. Total blade DNA was isolated from various kelp species at yields of about 1.0 μg.g^?1 wet weight of tissue extracted. Purified chloroplast and nuclear DNAs were isolated from Macrocystis integrifolia at respective yields of about 0.05 μg.g^?1 and 1.0 μg.g^?1 wet weight of tissue extracted. Hybridization experiments with a cloned portion of the 23S rRNA gene of M. integrifolia as probe (pMiR23S) showed that the M. integrifolia chloroplast genome contains two copies of the 23S rRNA gene. Three regions of the kelp chloroplast genome were studied by restriction analysis of the cpDNA of five genera. Respective differences were assessed by comparing the restriction fragment patterns produced with five restriction endonucleases for each of three cloned M. integrifolia cpDNA hybridization probes. The kelp cpDNA sequences that hybridized to the repeated sequence probe pMiR23S were less divergent (100 × p = 2.53) than were the sequences that hybridized to the single copy probes pMiR432 and pMiH7 (100 × p = 7.48–7.74). Sequence variation (100 × p) between kelp species ranged from 3.38–6.82. Sequence variation between kelp species and Fucus gardneri ranged from 9.08–12.04. Chloroplast DNA restriction fragment length data were used to derive two most parsimonious phylogenetic trees. Both trees had consistency indexes of 0.78 and indicated that the three lessoniacean genera in the comparison do not comprise a single distinct lineage.     

Chloroplast DNA inheritance in Populus

Summary The inheritance of chloroplast (cp) DNA was examined in F₁ hybrid progenies of two Populus deltoides intraspecific controlled crosses and three P. deltoides × P. nigra and two P. deltoides × P. maximowiczii interspecific controlled crosses by restriction fragment analysis. Southern blots of restriction digests of parental and progeny DNAs were hybridized to cloned cpDNA fragments of Petunia hybrida. Sixteen enzymes and five heterologous cpDNA probes were used to screen restriction fragment polymorphisms among the parents. The mode of cpDNA inheritance was demonstrated in progenies of P. deltoides × P. nigra crosses with 26 restriction fragment polymorphisms of cpDNA differentiating P. deltoides from P. nigra, as revealed by 12 enzyme-probe combinations, and in progenies of P. deltoides × P. maximowiczii crosses with 12 restriction fragment polymorphisms separating P. deltoides from P. maximowiczii, as revealed by 7 restriction enzyme-probe combinations. In all cases, F₁ offspring of P. deltoides × P. nigra and P. deltoides × P. maximowiczii crosses had cpDNA restriction fragments of only their maternal P. deltoides parent. The results clearly demonstrated uniparental-maternal inheritance of the chloroplast genome in interspecific hybrids of P. deltoides with P. nigra and P. maximowiczii. Intraspecific P. deltoides hybrids also had the same cpDNA restriction fragments as their maternal parent. Maternal inheritance of the chloroplast genome in Populus is in agreement with what has been observed for most other angiosperms.     

Loss of the rpl32 gene from the chloroplast genome and subsequent acquisition of a preexisting transit peptide within the nuclear gene in Populus

Gene transfer events from organelle genomes (mitochondria and chloroplasts in plants) to the nuclear genome are important processes in the evolution of the eukaryotic cell. It is highly likely that the gene transfer event is still an ongoing process in higher plant mitochondria and chloroplasts. The number and order of genes encoded in the chloroplast genome of higher plants are highly conserved. Recently, several exceptional cases of gene loss from the chloroplast genome have been discovered as the number of complete chloroplast genome sequences has increased. The Populus chloroplast genome has lost the rpl32 gene, while the corresponding the chloroplast rpl32 (cp rpl32) gene has been identified in the nuclear genome. Nuclear genes transferred from the chloroplast genome need to gain a sequence that encodes a transit peptide. Here, we revealed that the nuclear cp rpl32 gene has acquired the exon sequence, which is highly homologous to a transit peptide derived from the chloroplast Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase (cp sod-1) gene. The cp rpl32 gene has acquired the sequence that encodes not only for the transit peptide, but also for the conserved N-terminal portion of the mature SOD protein from the cp sod-1 gene, suggesting the occurrence of DNA sequence duplication. Unlike cp SOD-1, cp RPL32 did not show biased localization in the chloroplasts. This difference may be caused by mutations accumulated in the sequence of the SOD domain on the cp rpl32 gene. We provide new insight into the fate of the inherent sequence derived from a transit peptide.