真菌Batrachochytrium dendrobaidis是蛙类种群衰退的近因吗?

蛙类衰退是过去二十年来全球许多地区倍受关注的问题, 澳大利亚似乎是衰退的热点地区。当前研究所形成的主流假设是, 真菌Batachochytrium dendrobatidis 引发的壶菌病导致蛙类种群衰退。我们在毗邻农业和城市发展区的天然未开垦林地内, 用陷阱捕捉三个与大面积临时湿地相连生境中的蛙类。作为这项庞大研究工作的一部分, 我们观察了壶菌流行病, 确认了这类真菌的感染率。在各年份中, 该地蛙类中仅斑点草蛙(Limnodynastes tasmaniensis) 有些个体因此类病症死亡, 尽管该种的若干近缘种亦是该地蛙类的一部分; 病疫流行的证据仅见于其中一个年份。在所有具有典型壶菌病症状死亡的动物中, 仅22%的动物表皮受真菌感染。虽然种群中存在壶菌病, 我们认为这不是影响种群内个体死亡率的近因。根据这一观察, 我们质疑B. dendro batidis 是蛙类死亡主要原因假设的正确性。     

真菌Batrachochytrium denrobaidis是蛙类种群衰退的近因吗？

蛙类衰退是过去二十年来全球许多地区倍受关注的问题,澳大利亚似乎是衰退的热点地区。当前研究所形成的主流假设是,真菌Batrachochytrium denrobaidis引发的壶菌病导致蛙类种群衰退。我们在毗邻农业和城市发展区的天然未开垦林地内,用陷阱捕捉三个与大面积临时湿地相连生境中的蛙类。作为这项庞大研究工作的一部分,我们观察了壶菌流行病,确认了这类真菌的感染率。在各年份中,该地蛙类中仅斑点草蛙(Limnodynastes tasmaniensis)有些个体因此类病症死亡,尽管该种的若干近缘种亦是该地蛙类的一部分;病疫流行的证据仅见于其中一个年份。在所有具有典型壶菌病症状死亡的动物中,仅22％的动物表皮受真菌感染。虽然种群中存在壶菌病,我们认为这不是影响种群内个体死亡率的近因。根据这一观察,我们质疑B.dendrobatidis是蛙类死亡主要原因假设的正确性。     

两栖类种群数量下降原因及保护对策

近几十年来 ,全球范围内的两栖类出现了较快的种群数量下降 ,包括部分物种的灭绝。引起两栖类种群数量下降的原因可能有 :紫外线辐射、生境破碎和改变、生物入侵和捕食、环境污染、疾病、气候变化以及这些因素的相互作用 ,其中生境破碎和改变是主要原因 ,而引起各因素变化的全球变化可能是根本原因。应加强对两栖类种群动态的研究 ,探明其下降机制 ,制定相应的保护对策 ,减少两栖类的下降     

中国两栖类种群生态研究概述

两栖类种群生态学研究从深度和广度上看,均无法与哺乳类和鸟类的相比。然而与哺乳类和鸟类一样,随着生态环境的恶化和生态空间的减少,两栖类各物种种群面临巨大的生存压力,甚至濒临灭绝;因此,广泛深入地开展两栖类种群生态学研究,探讨两栖类与外界环境之间的关系,对环境监测和对两栖类种群的保护与利用均有较大的现实意义和理论意义。为此,重点从两栖类的种群结构与动态规律,摄食行为与食性,怕分析与通讯联系,繁殖过程和繁殖习性,越冬准备和冬眠适应,以及两栖类种群数量下降等方面,对中国研究者的工作进行综述,试图阐述研究现状,存在问题,并分析了尚待加强研究的方面和今后的发展趋势。     

两栖类的繁殖迁徙研究概述

两栖类的繁殖迁徙是其繁殖活动的重要组成部分,个体能否成功完成繁殖迁徙将直接影响到繁殖成功率。两栖类的繁殖迁徙研究对于了解物种和种群对繁殖栖息地的需求、物种的繁殖活动规律,以及科学合理地进行繁殖湿地以及相应栖息地的规划、管理和保护具有重要意义。国际上对两栖类的繁殖迁徙已有大量的研究,内容涉及多个方面,而国内的研究还非常少。本文从两栖类的繁殖迁徙物候、迁徙模式、迁徙方向与定向、迁徙距离等方面总结了影响两栖类繁殖迁徙时间、繁殖迁徙方向的因素以及两栖类的定向和导航机制,分析了两栖类不同类群和性别在繁殖迁徙距离上的差异及其原因,介绍了两栖类繁殖迁徙常用的研究方法及其优缺点。开展两栖类繁殖迁徙的研究将对我国的两栖类保护具有重要意义。     

壶菌感染对两栖动物种群影响的研究现状与挑战

加强生物多样性保护与共建地球生命共同体是我国的重大战略。两栖动物是脊椎动物中生物多样性受威胁最严重的类群,两种壶菌Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd)和B. salamandrivorans (Bsal)的感染是两栖动物多样性下降的主要因素之一。Bd主要感染两栖动物无尾目、有尾目和蚓螈目的皮肤,可能引起两栖动物淋巴细胞凋亡和全身电解质失衡。Bsal主要感染有尾目,可能导致两栖动物致命的败血症。针对壶菌及其感染对两栖动物种群影响的研究在国外已经开展了大量工作,然而我国在该领域的研究有限。本文通过检索1990–2022年国内外文献,梳理和总结了壶菌病原的可能起源与传播、壶菌感染的发病机制、壶菌毒力的影响因素和壶菌病原体的诊断与防治等领域的研究,并提出了未来的研究方向和技术方法的改进需求,如利用全基因组测序技术溯源、开发RPA技术进行野外检测和应用转录组学研究宿主–病原体的免疫等。最后,提出以下4条建议:(1)建设壶菌病原基础数据平台,建立壶菌病常规检测部门,并将壶菌病监测纳入野生动物疫病监测体系;(2)深入开展我国两栖动物不同地理区系壶菌感染情况的相关研究...     

两栖动物MHC基因研究进展

MHC是高度多态的基因群,广泛分布于各种脊椎动物体内。由于MHC基因的多态性,使其在脊椎动物的免疫、遗传、进化、保护等许多方面的研究倍受关注。本文综述了两栖类MHC基因自研究以来国内外有关该基因的研究报道,包括其结构、功能以及在两栖类遗传进化、种群遗传学、免疫遗传学及抗病中的应用,并对研究前景进行了展望。     

中国特有两栖类受胁现状分析

中国拥有丰富的两栖类资源,共321种,其中特有种236种,这些特有种是我国生物资源独特而重要的组成部分.但受人为和自然等因素的影响,中国特有两栖类出现了较快的种群数量下降,部分物种已经面临濒危状况而很少被人们关注.本文将对中国特有两栖类的数量、分布、受胁原因作简要阐述,以制定相应的保护对策.     

近交衰退:我们检测到了吗

近交衰退产生的原因是近交增加了有害等位基因纯合几率,导致个体适应能力下降。种群变小是导致近交衰退的主要原因,但在实际研究中发现近交衰退并非一定明显表现出来,这可能有以下几个主要的原因遗传负荷的淘汰、在较好的环境下近交衰退会表现不明显、并非能在所有性状中检测到近交衰退、近交衰退只出现在某些发育阶段和不同家系、种群、个体中的近交衰退程度不同。这提示我们近交衰退与生态及遗传密切相关。     

开封市城市水系微生境特征对两栖动物多样性的影响

两栖类生物生活史独特对环境变化极其敏感,是环境变化的重要指示物种。开封城市水系的建设直接影响两栖类生物栖息地与两栖类生物多样性。本研究通过设置样线,采用目视遇测法对开封市水系中的两栖类生物进行调查,并采集相应的生境因子变量。采用Shannon多样性指数、Pielou均匀度指数、Simpson优势度指数研究了不同生境类型下两栖类生物多样性特征,运用聚类分析与冗余分析探究了无尾两栖类对微生境因子的响应特征。结果表明: 在开封水系中,自然驳岸两栖类生物的多样性、均匀度以及优势度均大于两种人工硬化驳岸,表明两栖动物种群在自然生境中稳定性较好,自然驳岸两栖类生物的优势度指数大于两种人工硬化驳岸,两栖类生物生境选择偏向于自然生境;黑斑侧褶蛙与中华蟾蜍的丰富度和夜间光照强度呈显著正相关,金线侧褶蛙与总磷呈显著正相关,泽陆蛙与水体pH值呈显著正相关。开封城市水系建设考虑两栖类生物保护,河渠建设中增加自然驳岸,对提升开封市两栖类生物多样性具有重要意义。     

Chytrid fungus parasitizing the wild amphibian Leptodactylus ocellatus (Anura: Leptodactylidae) in Argentina

The present contribution is the first report of parasitosis by a chytrid fungus in wild anuran amphibians in Argentina, as well as the first case of amphibian mortality documented to date in Argentina. We report the presence of the chytrid fungus in dead adult Leptodactylus ocellatus. It has been suggested that chytridiomycosis is the main cause of death in several amphibian populations worldwide. Our study demonstrates that chytridiomycosis afflicts L. ocellatus, a common widespread amphibian species, and is the first report of chytridiomycosis in the Argentinian lowlands. The occurrence at this latitude would indicate an extended distribution of this fungus in wildlife populations. It is also the first report of amphibian mortality due to chytrid fungus in our country. It is noteworthy that the site of collection is situated very close to sea level in a temperate climate zone and that this represents the southern most record for South American wild amphibians.     

The Link Between Rapid Enigmatic Amphibian Decline and the Globally Emerging Chytrid Fungus

Amphibians are globally declining and approximately one-third of all species are threatened with extinction. Some of the most severe declines have occurred suddenly and for unknown reasons in apparently pristine habitats. It has been hypothesized that these “rapid enigmatic declines” are the result of a panzootic of the disease chytridiomycosis caused by globally emerging amphibian chytrid fungus. In a Species Distribution Model, we identified the potential distribution of this pathogen. Areas and species from which rapid enigmatic decline are known significantly overlap with those of highest environmental suitability to the chytrid fungus. We confirm the plausibility of a link between rapid enigmatic decline in worldwide amphibian species and epizootic chytridiomycosis.     

The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is non-randomly distributed across amphibian breeding habitats

The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has been implicated as the causative agent of mass mortalities, population declines, and the extinctions of stream-breeding amphibian species worldwide. While the factors that limit the distribution and abundance of B. dendrobatidis across large geographical regions are fairly well understood, little is known about the distribution of the fungus within localized areas such as individual catchments. The accurate identification of amphibian populations likely to be exposed to the fungus is urgently required for effective disease management. We conducted disease surveys of frogs representing five ecological guilds in south-east Queensland, Australia, and hypothesized that if B. dendrobatidis were responsible for the disappearance of stream-breeding amphibian populations, infection prevalence and intensity would be greatest in frogs breeding in permanent, flowing water. Overall, 30.3% of the 519 frogs we sampled were infected with B. dendrobatidis . However, infections were not evenly distributed across the ecological guilds, being almost completely restricted to frogs breeding at permanent waterbodies. Of these, stream breeders were significantly more likely to be infected than were pond breeders, though the intensity of frogs' infections did not differ significantly between the two guilds. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis was detected on only one of the 117 frogs that were found at ephemeral ponds, ephemeral streams, or terrestrial sites. These findings provide strong support for the hypothesis that B. dendrobatidis was responsible for many of the unexplained disappearances of stream-breeding amphibian populations in recent decades, and will enable wildlife managers to more accurately focus conservation efforts on those species at highest risk of disease-related decline.     

Sodium chloride inhibits the growth and infective capacity of the amphibian chytrid fungus and increases host survival rates

The amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is a recently emerged pathogen that causes the infectious disease chytridiomycosis and has been implicated as a contributing factor in the global amphibian decline. Since its discovery, research has been focused on developing various methods of mitigating the impact of chytridiomycosis on amphibian hosts but little attention has been given to the role of antifungal agents that could be added to the host's environment. Sodium chloride is a known antifungal agent used routinely in the aquaculture industry and this study investigates its potential for use as a disease management tool in amphibian conservation. The effect of 0-5 ppt NaCl on the growth, motility and survival of the chytrid fungus when grown in culture media and its effect on the growth, infection load and survivorship of infected Peron's tree frogs (Litoria peronii) in captivity, was investigated. The results reveal that these concentrations do not negatively affect the survival of the host or the pathogen. However, concentrations greater than 3 ppt significantly reduced the growth and motility of the chytrid fungus compared to 0 ppt. Concentrations of 1-4 ppt NaCl were also associated with significantly lower host infection loads while infected hosts exposed to 3 and 4 ppt NaCl were found to have significantly higher survival rates. These results support the potential for NaCl to be used as an environmentally distributed antifungal agent for the prevention of chytridiomycosis in susceptible amphibian hosts. However, further research is required to identify any negative effects of salt exposure on both target and non-target organisms prior to implementation.     

Altitudinal distribution of chytrid (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) infection in subtropical Australian frogs

The disappearance of amphibian populations from seemingly pristine upland areas worldwide has become a major focus of conservation efforts in the last two decades, and a parasitic chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, is thought to be the causative agent of the population declines. We examined the altitudinal distribution of chytrid infections in three stream‐dwelling frog species (Litoria wilcoxii, L. pearsoniana and L. chloris) in southeast Queensland, Australia, and hypothesized that if B. dendrobatidis were responsible for the disappearance of high‐altitude frog populations, infection prevalence and intensity would be greatest at higher altitudes. Overall, 37.7% of the 798 adult frogs we sampled were infected with B. dendrobatidis, and infections were found in all the populations we examined. Contrary to our initial hypothesis, we found no consistent evidence that high‐altitude frogs were more likely to be infected than were lowland frogs. Further, the intensity of fungal infections (number of zoospores) on high‐altitude frogs did not differ significantly from that of lowland frogs. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis appears to be capable of infecting frogs at all altitudes in the subtropics, suggesting that all populations are at risk of decline when conditions favour disease outbreaks. We did find evidence, however, that chytrid infections persist longer into summer in upland as compared with lowland areas, suggesting that montane amphibian populations remain susceptible to disease outbreaks for longer periods than do lowland populations. Further, we found that at high altitudes, temperatures optimal for chytrid growth and reproduction coincide with frog metamorphosis, the life‐stage at which frogs are most susceptible to chytrid infections. While these altitudinal differences may account for the differential population‐level responses to the presence of B. dendrobatidis, the reason why many of southeast Queensland's montane frog populations declined precipitously while lowland populations remained stable has yet to be resolved.     

Presence of the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in threatened corroboree frog populations in the Australian Alps

Since the early 1980s, the southern corroboree frog Pseudophryne corroboree and northern corroboree frog P. pengilleyi have been in a state of decline from their sub-alpine and high montane bog environments on the southern tablelands of New South Wales, Australia. To date, there has been no adequate explanation as to what is causing the decline of these species. We investigated the possibility that a pathogen associated with other recent frog declines in Australia, the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, may have been implicated in the decline of the corroboree frogs. We used histology of toe material and real-time PCR of skin swabs to investigate the presence and infection rates with B. dendrobatidis in historic and extant populations of both corroboree frog species. Using histology, we did not detect any B. dendrobatidis infections in corroboree frog populations prior to their decline. However, using the same technique, high rates of infection were observed in populations of both species after the onset of substantial population declines. The real-time PCR screening of skin swabs identified high overall infection rates in extant populations of P. corroboree (between 44 and 59%), while significantly lower rates of infection were observed in low-altitude P. pengilleyi populations (14%). These results suggest that the initial and continued decline of the corroboree frogs may well be attributed to the emergence of B. dendrobatidis in populations of these species.     

Antimicrobial Peptide defenses in amphibian skin

One of the most urgent problems in conservation biology todayis the continuing loss of amphibian populations on a globalscale. Recent amphibian population declines in Australia, CentralAmerica, the western United States, Europe, and Africa havebeen linked to a pathogenic chytrid fungus, Batrachochytriumdendrobatidis, which infects the skin. The skin of amphibiansis critical for fluid balance, respiration, and transport ofessential ions; and the immune defense of the skin must be integratedwith these physiological responses. One of the natural defensesof the skin is production of antimicrobial peptides in granularglands. Discharge of the granular glands is initiated by stimulationof sympathetic nerves. To determine whether antimicrobial skinpeptides play a role in protection from invasive pathogens,purified antimicrobial peptides and natural peptide mixturesrecovered from the skin secretions of a number of species havebeen assayed for growth inhibition of the chytrid fungus. Thegeneral findings are that most species tested have one or moreantimicrobial peptides with potent activity against the chytridfungus, and natural mixtures of peptides are also effectiveinhibitors of chytrid growth. This supports the hypothesis thatantimicrobial peptides produced in the skin are an importantdefense against skin pathogens and may affect survival of populations.We also report on initial studies of peptide depletion usingnorepinephrine and the kinetics of peptide recovery followinginduction. Approximately 80 nmoles/g of norepinephrine is requiredto deplete peptides, and peptide stores are not fully recoveredat three weeks following this treatment. Because many specieshave defensive peptides and yet suffer chytrid-associated populationdeclines, it is likely that other factors (temperature, conditionsof hydration, "stress," or pesticides) may alter normal defensesand allow for uncontrolled infection.     

There Is No Evidence for a Temporal Link between Pathogen Arrival and Frog Extinctions in North-Eastern Australia

Pathogen spread can cause population declines and even species extinctions. Nonetheless, in the absence of tailored monitoring schemes, documenting pathogen spread can be difficult. In the case of worldwide amphibian declines the best present understanding is that the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) has recently spread, causing amphibian declines and extinction in the process. However, good evidence demonstrating pathogen arrival followed by amphibian decline is rare, and analysis of putative evidence is often inadequate. Here we attempt to examine the relationship between Bd arrival and amphibian decline across north-eastern Australia, using sites where a wave-like pattern of amphibian decline was first noticed and at which intensive research has since been conducted. We develop an analytical framework that allows rigorous estimation of pathogen arrival date, which can then be used to test for a correlation between the time of pathogen arrival and amphibian decline across sites. Our results show that, with the current dataset, the earliest possible arrival date of Bd in north-eastern Australia is completely unresolved; Bd could have arrived immediately before sampling commenced or may have arrived thousands of years earlier, the present data simply cannot say. The currently available data are thus insufficient to assess the link between timing of pathogen arrival and population decline in this part of the world. This data insufficiency is surprising given that there have been decades of research on chytridiomycosis in Australia and that there is a general belief that the link between Bd arrival and population decline is well resolved in this region. The lack of data on Bd arrival currently acts as a major impediment to determining the role of environmental factors in driving the global amphibian declines, and should be a major focus of future research.     

Using amphibians in laboratory studies: precautions against the emerging infectious disease chytridiomycosis

The African clawed frog Xenopus laevis is by far the most widely used amphibian species in laboratories. In the wild, X. laevis is an asymptomatic carrier of an emerging infectious disease called chytridiomycosis. The vector is the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which has devastating effects on wild amphibian populations around the world. The impact of Bd on the metabolism of X. laevis has not been comprehended yet. However, even if asymptomatic, an infection is likely to affect the individual's physiology, immunology, development, reproduction and overall response to stress from a purely medical point of view, which will introduce noise and therefore increase variance within experimental groups of X. laevis. This could have implications on the scientific results from studies using this species. Here, we review the current knowledge on treatments of infected amphibians and propose a hygiene protocol adapted to laboratory populations and amphibian husbandry. Following the presented sanitation guidelines could further prevent the spread of Bd and probably of other amphibian pathogens. The sanitation guidelines will help to reduce the impact of amphibian husbandry on natural populations and must be considered a crucial contribution to amphibian conservation, as today 32% of all amphibians are considered threatened.     

Transmission of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis within and between amphibian life stages

Chytridiomycosis is an emerging infectious disease caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which has been implicated in amphibian declines worldwide. The mountain yellow-legged frog Rana muscosa is a declining amphibian species that can be infected by B. dendrobatidis; however, transmission between conspecifics has not been documented. Here, we present experimental evidence that R. muscosa tadpoles can be infected by fungal zoospores and that they can transmit infection to each other and to postmetamorphic animals. We compared several techniques for detecting B. dendrobatidis transmission and found that histology with serial sectioning was able to detect infection before cytology or visual inspections. We also show that R. muscosa tadpoles appear healthy with B. dendrobatidis infection, while postmetamorphic animals experience mortality. In addition, we provide guidelines for visually detecting B. dendrobatidis in R. muscosa tadpoles, which may be useful in other affected species. Field surveys of infected and uninfected populations verify this identification technique.