用原子力显微镜研究炎症反应中粘附分子间相互作用

在炎症反应中,白细胞在血液流动动力和粘附分子的作用下在血管内皮上的滚动,是白细胞从流动的血液中浸润、迁移到炎症部位整个过程的第一步。白细胞在内皮细胞上滚动由选择素分子与其配体分子相互作用所导致,其中P选择素分子（P-selectin）与其对应的P-选择素糖蛋白配体-1（PSGL-1）的相互作用起着重要的作用。原子力显微镜技术能定量分析P-seleetin／PSGL-1相互作用的动力学反应。     

P-选择素糖蛋白配体1与白细胞的起始黏附

P-选择素糖蛋白配体1（P—selectin glycoprotein ligand 1,PSGL-1）是20世纪90年代初期发现的一种具同源二聚体结构的跨膜糖蛋白,表达于几乎所有白细胞表面,是迄今为止阐述得最为详尽的选择素配体。PSGL-1是以P-选择素为亲和探针分离得到的,与P-选择素有高度的亲和性。近年来,越来越多的研究证明了PSGL-1同时也是L-选择素和E-选择素的生理配体。通过PSGL-1与选择素分子间的相互作用,白细胞在血管内皮细胞上产生滚动（即起始黏附）,进而使白细胞逐步活化并稳定黏附于血管内皮。现从PSGL-1的结构、分布、表达调控、信号转导、生理病理角色、临床应用等方面进行综述。     

选择素与肿瘤转移

选择素是已知的细胞粘附分子家族之一,其生理功能是在炎症发生时介导白细胞与血管内皮间的起始粘附.近年来,大量实验证据表明选择素在肿瘤转移的过程中也起重要作用,主要是介导肿瘤细胞与血小板及血管内皮间的起始粘附,另外选择素及其配体也可以作为信号分子促进肿瘤的转移.因此,在将来的临床应用中,选择素及其配体可以作为血清诊断标记监控肿瘤及肿瘤转移的发生;通过抑制选择素与其配体的相互作用,或阻断选择素表达的途径防止肿瘤转移.     

P-选择素及其细胞黏附与血栓形成

P-选择素是选择素家族的重要黏附分子,作为血小板/内皮细胞活化标志和细胞黏附受体,其可通过介导血小板、内皮细胞黏附及与白细胞的相互作用,启动参与了包括炎症和血栓形成等多种病理生理起始过程,是炎症/血栓的重要介质和靶分子。抑制P-选择素及其与配体的结合和作用,可使病理状态下血栓局部白细胞聚集减少、细胞因子及组织因子表达降低、纤维蛋白生成减少,从而有助于抑制血栓的形成。因此,随着P-选择素及其细胞黏附与血栓形成研究的不断深入和阐明,以P-选择素为靶标的血栓性疾病的诊断和抗黏附治疗,也已引起人们关注并具有良好的临床应用价值和前景。     

感染性疾病内皮活化/功能障碍的生物标记物的研究进展

内皮功能障碍在脓毒症、重症疟疾及登革出血热等多种感染性疾病发病机制中起着重要作用。由于内皮活化常先于内皮功能障碍,血清或/血浆中相应内皮生物标记物常较传统疾病标记物更早被检测到,故可作为评估全身感染性疾病严重程度或预后的指标。本文主要介绍了内皮细胞功能介质(血管生成素-1和血管生成素-2)和可溶性细胞表面黏附分子(可溶性E-选择素、sICAM-1和sVCAM-1)在脓毒症、疟疾及登革出血热等疾病中的表达及临床意义。     

整联蛋白调控血管新生内膜增生的研究进展

血管新生内膜增生是支架植入术、动静脉瘘术等血管手术以及动脉粥样硬化、高血压等心血管疾病的生理特征。整联蛋白介导的细胞黏附在新生内膜增生过程中起着重要作用。该文概述了整联蛋白在此过程中对白细胞黏附、平滑肌细胞迁移增殖、再内皮化的调控及目前用于研究新生内膜的相关动物模型。了解整联蛋白调节血管新生内膜增生的分子机制,为临床上防治新生内膜增生、解决术后血管再狭窄等相关研究提供参考。     

凝血酶与血管内皮细胞

凝血酶不仅在凝血过程中起主导作用,还可以引发多种凝血酶受体介导的分子和细胞间相互作用,在动脉粥样硬化和再狭窄形成中起着重要的作用。现就凝血酶及其受体的特性,以及对血管内皮细胞的作用,包括通透性改变、内皮生长因子、基质金属蛋白酶、黏附分子表达作一综述。     

炎症反应中选择素粘附分子与配体间相互作用的研究

在炎症反应中,白细胞在内皮细胞上滚动由选择素分子与其配体分子相互作用所导致,选择素分子有3种,P选择素分子（P—selectin）、E选择素分子（E—selectin）、L选择素分子（L—selectin）,选择素分子与其对应的P-选择素糖蛋白配体-1（PSGL-1）的相互作用起着重要的作用。用等离子共振、流动腔、原子力显微镜等技术能定量分析选择素分子与其配体分子相互作用的动力学反应。     

P,E-选择素缺乏的后果

Ｐ，Ｅ┐选择素缺乏的后果在白细胞向炎症部位游走过程中有数类粘附分子起作用，但它们各自的重要性尚不清楚。选择素家族基因位于小鼠第１号染色体上，编码三种选择素。Ｌ－选择素主要存在于大多数白细胞上，当初被视为淋巴结归巢受体，随后发现也参与白细胞对内皮的粘附...     

网膜素:一个新的脂肪因子

脂肪因子(adipokines)是由脂肪组织分泌的细胞因子家族,广泛参与调节和维持糖、脂代谢平衡及血管内皮功能。网膜素是新发现的一类由网膜脂肪组织分泌的脂肪因子,参与调控机体的内分泌、能量代谢及炎症的发生发展。研究发现,网膜素可以促进脂肪细胞对胰岛素介导的葡萄糖的摄取作用,并促进胰岛素受体后信号通路中的Akt磷酸化;其次,网膜素具有抗炎作用,尤其在血管内皮细胞炎症过程中的抗炎机理已被首次证实;另外,网膜素对血管还有舒张作用,尤其在冠状动脉粥样硬化中发挥保护性作用。因此,网膜素可能是联系炎症和动脉粥样硬化间的重要分子,可能成为潜在的标志性分子或药物作用靶点。本文拟就网膜素的新近研究进展予以综述。     

Sialylated, fucosylated ligands for L-selectin expressed on leukocytes mediate tethering and rolling adhesions in physiologic flow conditions

Interaction of leukocytes in flow with adherent leukocytes may contribute to their accumulation at sites of inflammation. Using L- selectin immobilized in a flow chamber, a model system that mimics presentation of L-selectin by adherent leukocytes, we characterize ligands for L-selectin on leukocytes and show that they mediate tethering and rolling in shear flow. We demonstrate the presence of L- selectin ligands on granulocytes, monocytes, and myeloid and lymphoid cell lines, and not on peripheral blood T lymphocytes. These ligands are calcium dependent, sensitive to protease and neuraminidase, and structurally distinct from previously described ligands for L-selectin on high endothelial venules (HEV). Differential sensitivity to O-sialo- glycoprotease provides evidence for ligand activity on both mucin-like and nonmucin-like structures. Transfection with fucosyltransferase induces expression of functional L-selectin ligands on both a lymphoid cell line and a nonhematopoietic cell line. L-selectin presented on adherent cells is also capable of supporting tethering and rolling interactions in physiologic shear flow. L-selectin ligands on leukocytes may be important in promoting leukocyte-leukocyte and subsequent leukocyte endothelial interactions in vivo, thereby enhancing leukocyte localization at sites of inflammation.     

Selectins: lectins that initiate cell adhesion under flow

Interactions of selectins with cell-surface glycoconjugates mediate tethering and rolling adhesion of leukocytes and platelets on vascular surfaces. Recent studies have helped elucidate the molecular details of selectin-ligand interactions, the biosynthetic pathways for constructing selectin ligands, and the biophysical and cell biological features that modulate selectin-dependent rolling under flow.     

An activated L-selectin mutant with conserved equilibrium binding properties but enhanced ligand recognition under shear flow

Selectins mediate the initial tethering and rolling of leukocytes on vessel walls. Adhesion by selectins is a function of both ligand recognition at equilibrium and mechanical properties of the selectin-ligand bond under applied force. We describe an EGF domain mutant of L-selectin with profoundly augmented adhesiveness over that of native L-selectin but conserved ligand specificity. This mutant, termed LPL, was derived by a substitution of the EGF-like domain of L-selectin with the homologous domain from P-selectin. The mutant bound soluble carbohydrate L-selectin ligand with affinity comparable with that of native L-selectin but interacted with all surface-bound ligands much more readily than native L-selectin, in particular under elevated shear flow. Tethers mediated by both native and mutant L-selectin exhibited similar lifetimes under a range of shear stresses, but the rate of bond formation by the mutant was at least 10-fold higher than that of native L-selectin toward distinct L-selectin ligands. Enhanced rate of bond formation by the mutant was associated with profoundly stronger rolling interactions and reduced dependence of rolling on a threshold of shear stress. This is the first demonstration that the EGF domain can modulate the binding of the lectin domain of a selectin to surface-immobilized ligands under shear flow without affecting the equilibrium properties of the selectin toward soluble ligands.     

Distinct cell surface ligands mediate T lymphocyte attachment and rolling on P and E selectin under physiological flow

Memory T lymphocytes extravasate at sites of inflammation, but the mechanisms employed by these cells to initiate contact and tethering with endothelium are incompletely understood. An important part of leukocyte extravasation is the initiation of rolling adhesions on endothelial selectins; such events have been studied in monocytes and neutrophils but not lymphocytes. In this study, the potential of T lymphocytes to adhere and roll on endothelial selectins in vitro was investigated. We demonstrate that T cells can form tethers and rolling adhesions on P selectin and E selectin under physiologic flow conditions. Tethering and rolling on P selectin was independent of cell- surface cutaneous lymphocyte antigen (CLA) expression, which correlated strictly with the capacity of T cells to form rolling adhesions under flow on E selectin. T cell tethering to P selectin was abolished by selective removal of cell surface sialomucins by a P. haemolytica O- glycoprotease, while cutaneous lymphocyte antigen expression was unaffected. A sialomucin molecule identical or closely related to P selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1), the major P selectin ligand on neutrophils and HL-60 cells, appears to be a major T cell ligand for P selectin. P selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 does not appear to support T cell rolling on E selectin. In turn, E selectin ligands do not appear to be associated with sialomucins. These data demonstrate the presence of structurally distinct ligands for P or E selectins on T cells, provide evidence that both ligands can be coexpressed on a single T cell, and mediate tethering and rolling on the respective selectins in a mutually exclusive fashion.     

Flow-enhanced adhesion regulated by a selectin interdomain hinge

L-selectin requires a threshold shear to enable leukocytes to tether to and roll on vascular surfaces. Transport mechanisms govern flow-enhanced tethering, whereas force governs flow-enhanced rolling by prolonging the lifetimes of L-selectin-ligand complexes (catch bonds). Using selectin crystal structures, molecular dynamics simulations, site-directed mutagenesis, single-molecule force and kinetics experiments, Monte Carlo modeling, and flow chamber adhesion studies, we show that eliminating a hydrogen bond to increase the flexibility of an interdomain hinge in L-selectin reduced the shear threshold for adhesion via two mechanisms. One affects the on-rate by increasing tethering through greater rotational diffusion. The other affects the off-rate by strengthening rolling through augmented catch bonds with longer lifetimes at smaller forces. By forcing open the hinge angle, ligand may slide across its interface with L-selectin to promote rebinding, thereby providing a mechanism for catch bonds. Thus, allosteric changes remote from the ligand-binding interface regulate both bond formation and dissociation.     

Inhibition of L-selectin binding by polyacrylamide-based conjugates under defined flow conditions

Selectins mediate tethering and rolling of leukocytes along the endothelium in a shear force-dependent manner. This key step in the cellular immune response is a target for experimental anti-inflammatory therapies. In the present paper we have examined the inhibitory activity of the minimal selectin ligand sialyl Lewis x (SiaLe(x)), its isomer sialyl Lewis a (SiaLe(a)) and sulfated tyrosine (sTyr) residues under dynamic flow reflecting the rheological conditions in the blood stream. The monomeric ligands were compared to multivalent polyacrylamide (PAA)-based conjugates under defined flow conditions on the molecular level, using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technology, and on the cellular level, using a parallel-plate flow chamber. SPR measurements showed that a spatial arrangement of binding epitopes mimicking the selectin binding motif of the natural ligand PSGL-1 inhibits L-selectin binding successfully with IC(50) values in the nanomolar range. Using a flow chamber adhesion assay it could be shown that the multivalent inhibitors efficiently blocked rolling and tethering of NALM-6 pre-B cells transfected with human L-selectin to activated endothelium and that the inhibitory activity increased with rising shear stress. While PAA-conjugates were almost not inhibitory at low shear stress, NALM-6 cell rolling was nearly completely inhibited at high shear stress. The results indicate that multimeric conjugates of SiaLe(x), SiaLe(a) and sTyr are highly effective inhibitors of L-selectin-mediated cell adhesion particularly under flow conditions. Consequently, SiaLe(x), SiaLe(a) and/or sTyr on macromolecular carriers may be promising candidates for anti-inflammatory therapy.     

How do selectins mediate leukocyte rolling in venules?

At the onset of inflammation, 20-80% of all leukocytes passing postcapillary venules roll along the endothelium. Recent blocking experiments with antibodies and soluble adhesion receptor molecules, as well as in vitro reconstitution experiments, suggest that leukocyte rolling is mediated by adhesion molecules that belong to the selectin family. What differentiates a selectin-counterreceptor interaction that leads to leukocyte rolling from others that mediate firm adhesion after static incubation but no adhesion when incubated under flow conditions? Here, we explore this question by introducing a quantitative biophysical model that is compatible with the laws of mechanics as applied to rolling leukocytes and the present biochemical and biophysical data on selectin mediated interactions. Our computational experiments point to an adhesion mechanism in which the rate of bond formation is high and the detachment rate low, except at the rear of the contact area where the stretched bonds detach at a high uniform rate. The bond length and bond flexibility play a critical role in enhancing leukocyte rolling at a wide range of fluid shear rates.     

L-selectin dimerization enhances tether formation to properly spaced ligand

Selectin counterreceptors are glycoprotein scaffolds bearing multiple carbohydrate ligands with exceptional ability to tether flowing cells under disruptive shear forces. Bond clusters may facilitate formation and stabilization of selectin tethers. L-selectin ligation has been shown to enhance L-selectin rolling on endothelial surfaces. We now report that monoclonal antibodies-induced L-selectin dimerization enhances L-selectin leukocyte tethering to purified physiological L-selectin ligands and glycopeptides. Microkinetic analysis of individual tethers suggests that leukocyte rolling is enhanced through the dimerization-induced increase in tether formation, rather than by tether stabilization. Notably, L-selectin dimerization failed to augment L-selectin-mediated adhesion below a threshold ligand density, suggesting that L-selectin dimerization enhanced adhesiveness only to properly clustered ligand. In contrast, an epidermal growth factor domain substitution of L-selectin enhanced tether formation to L-selectin ligands irrespective of ligand density, suggesting that this domain controls intrinsic ligand binding properties of L-selectin without inducing L-selectin dimerization. Strikingly, at low ligand densities, where L-selectin tethering was not responsive to dimerization, elevated shear stress restored sensitivity of tethering to selectin dimerization. This is the first indication that shear stress augments effective selectin ligand density at local contact sites by promoting L-selectin encounter of immobilized ligand.     

Mutagenesis of the ezrin-radixin-moesin binding domain of L-selectin tail affects shedding, microvillar positioning, and leukocyte tethering

L-selectin is a cell adhesion molecule that mediates the initial capture (tethering) and subsequent rolling of leukocytes along ligands expressed on endothelial cells. We have previously identified ezrin and moesin as novel binding partners of the 17-amino acid L-selectin tail, but the biological role of this interaction is not known. Here we identify two basic amino acid residues within the L-selectin tail that are required for binding to ezrin-radixinmoesin (ERM) proteins: arginine 357 and lysine 362. L-selectin mutants defective for ERM binding show reduced localization to microvilli and decreased phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate-induced shedding of the L-selectin ectodomain. Cells expressing these L-selectin mutants have reduced tethering to the L-selectin ligand P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1, but rolling velocity on P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 is not affected. These results suggest that ERM proteins are required for microvillar positioning of L-selectin and that this is important both for leukocyte tethering and L-selectin shedding.