热休克蛋白对细胞凋亡信号转导途径的调节

细胞凋亡信号转导目前已迅速成为揭示细胞凋亡分子机制的前沿课题. 由于热休克蛋白(HSPs)在细胞生长调控和凋亡中发挥的重要作用, 人们进行了大量关于热休克蛋白与细胞凋亡信号转导途径调节机制的研究. 研究发现, 热休克蛋白家族的多个成员, 如HSP90, HSP70, HSP60, HSP27等能够在Fas死亡受体途径、JNK/SAPK途径、caspase途径等多个水平发挥调节作用, 并且部分依赖于热休克蛋白的“分子伴侣”作用, 控制着细胞生命进程.     

分子伴侣参与调控动、植物的发育和进化进程

近年来, 人们对分子伴侣的功能研究取得了很大进展, 阐明了它参与细胞新合成蛋白多肽的折叠、组装、运输和蛋白质的降解过程。在这些过程中, 伴随着分子伴侣表达量的高低变化, 细胞线粒体数量也会发生相应的变化。文章综述了分子伴侣参与调控动、植物的发育和进化进程, 如: 动、植物育性调控, 抗逆境能力提高及热休克蛋白-多肽复合物的肿瘤免疫治疗探索等。     

果蝇热激蛋白的研究进展

热休克蛋白(heat shock proteins,HSPs)是生物体受到应激刺激时诱导产生的一组保守性蛋白,普遍存在于各种生物体中。近年来,果蝇Drosophila作为生命科学与人类疾病研究的重要模式生物,其热激蛋白的研究取得了许多新的进展。文章对果蝇热激蛋白的类别、热激蛋白基因的表达调控机制、热激蛋白的分子伴侣功能、调节细胞存亡和影响发育及寿命等相关生物学功能进行综述,并对热激蛋白在神经退行性疾病治疗中的应用前景作展望。     

辅分子伴侣调控热休克蛋白HSP90功能的研究

热休克蛋白90(HSP90)是一类ATPase依赖性蛋白,作为分子伴侣,可在辅分子伴侣协助下,通过自身构象改变,参与众多细胞的生物学事件,从而协助新合成蛋白的正确折叠、成功装配、功能稳定及异常蛋白的降解过程。HSP90功能的发挥依赖于辅分子伴侣及氨基末端结合的核苷酸。辅分子伴侣是一类可与分子伴侣(如,HSP90)结合并调节其功能的蛋白,通过参与ATPase循环从而调节HSP90分子伴侣的功能。近年来,辅分子伴侣的研究得到越来越多的关注,本文就辅分子伴侣调控HSP90功能的作用进行综述。     

TPR蛋白对Hsp90功能的调节

热激蛋白Hsp90是一类在进化中形成的高度保守的且可参与多种细胞功能的特异分子伴侣。TPR蛋白通常存在于Hsp90的多蛋白质复合物中,它对Hsp90的功能的多样性起着至关重要的作用,同时Hsp90可能为TPR蛋白提供“泊位”,允许不同的TPR蛋白在Hsp90分子伴侣底物附近有序而特异结合,从而使Hsp90在细胞内环境中以特定的方式完成其各种细胞功能。了解TPR蛋白与Hsp90的相互作用机制为阐明细胞内Hsp90的功能多样性和特异性奠定了基础。     

热休克蛋白70的结构和功能

热休克蛋白70(HSP70)是进化上高度保守的一种的蛋白质,具有多种生物学功能,包括分子伴侣功能,具有细胞保护及抗细胞凋亡功能,参与免疫调节,以及在病毒感染与疾病研究中也有重要作用。本文着重对HSP70的结构和功能研究的进展作一综述。     

分子伴侣研究概况

分子伴侣主要是在进化上高度保守的热休克蛋白的几个家族。从细菌到哺乳动物,分子伴侣对体内蛋白质的折叠、运输和组装都起到非常重要的作用。本文简要地概述了分子伴侣的组成、它们在蛋白质折叠中的作用以及它们在生物工程下游处理过程中的应用情况。     

热休克蛋白90三磷酸腺苷酶的调控机制研究

热休克蛋白90（heat shock protein90,Hsp90）是一类在生物进化中高度保守的蛋白,与细胞凋亡密切相关,作为抗癌新靶标已经得到了广泛的关注。相关研究表明,Hsp90可以通过多种方式调控ATPase的活性,如自身构象改变、与辅伴侣分子形成复合物以及转录后修饰等。在Hsp90基本构象改变的基础上,综述了不同因素对ATPase的调控作用,着重阐述近几年的研究进展,为进一步研究Hsp90调控ATPase的机制提供一定的参考。     

J蛋白研究进展

J蛋白（J-domain protein）是一类分子中含有J结构域的蛋白质大家族,大部分J蛋白具有分子伴侣的功能。J蛋白作为热休克蛋白70（HSP70）的同伴蛋白与HSP70组成分子伴侣机器,参与蛋白质分子折叠、组装、转运以及信号转导等多种细胞过程。此外,J蛋白在植物对环境胁迫的反应及其他生理过程中起重要作用。     

分子伴侣的多重功能

分子伴侣(molecular chaperone)在原核生物和真核生物的细胞中广泛存在.分子伴侣可稳定未折叠或部分折叠的多肽,并防止不适当的多肽链内或链间相互作用;有些分子伴侣也可与天然构象的蛋白质相互作用以促使寡聚态蛋白质发生结构重排.基于分子伴侣能识别并调节细胞内多肽的折叠,因此它们还具有介导线粒体蛋白跨膜转运,调控信息传导通路和转录、复制,以及参与微管形成与修复等功能.     

几种热激蛋白在细胞凋亡信号通路中的调控作用

热激蛋白(heat shock proteins, HSPs)作为进化保守的蛋白家族 之一,普遍存在于各种生物体中,并在生物体内发挥着重要的生理功能.大 量的实验证据表明,热激蛋白与细胞凋亡密切相关,参与细胞凋亡信号通 路的多个环节. 近年来有关该领域的研究已获得了重要的突破与进展.一方 面,热激蛋白主要起着抑制细胞凋亡、促进细胞存活的作用;另一方面, 某些热激蛋白又能够作为凋亡蛋白的分子伴侣,促进细胞凋亡,比如HSP70 能够激活DNase来促使细胞凋亡,线粒体内HSP60能够促进caspase依赖的细 胞凋亡途径.本文在阐明细胞凋亡信号通路的基础上,综述了近年来几种不 同热激蛋白家族（HSP90、 HSP70 、HSP60和小分子HSPs）在细胞凋亡调控 中作用的研究进展,重点阐述了几种主要热激蛋白与细胞凋亡信号通路上 相关因子的相互作用,并绘制了热激蛋白在细胞凋亡信号通路中的调控图 ,为进一步完善细胞凋亡调控网络研究提供一定的参考.     

Apoptosis Versus Cell Differentiation: Role of Heat Shock Proteins HSP90, HSP70 and HSP27

Heat shock proteins HSP27, HSP70 and HSP90 are molecular chaperones whose expression is increased after many different types of stress. They have a protective function helping the cell to cope with lethal conditions. The cytoprotective function of HSPs is largely explained by their anti-apoptotic function. HSPs have been shown to interact with different key apoptotic proteins. As a result, HSPs can block essentially all apoptotic pathways, most of them involving the activation of cystein proteases called caspases. Apoptosis and differentiation are physiological processes that share many common features, for instance, chromatin condensation and the activation of caspases are frequently observed. It is, therefore, not surprising that many recent reports imply HSPs in the differentiation process. This review will comment on the role of HSP90, HSP70 and HSP27 in apoptosis and cell differentiation. HSPs may determine de fate of the cells by orchestrating the decision of apoptosis versus differentiation.Key Words: apoptosis, differentiation, heat shock proteins, chaperones, cancer cells, anticancer drugs     

Cytosolic accumulation of HSP60 during apoptosis with or without apparent mitochondrial release: evidence that its pro-apoptotic or pro-survival functions involve differential interactions with caspase-3

Most heat shock proteins (HSPs) have pro-survival functions. However, the role of HSP60, a mitochondrial matrix protein, is somewhat controversial with both pro-survival and pro-apoptotic functions reported. Here we show that in numerous apoptotic systems HSP60 protein accumulates in the cytosol. In BMD188-induced cell death, HSP60 accumulates in the cytosol with significant mitochondrial release. In contrast, in apoptosis induced by multiple other inducers, the cytosolic HSP60 accumulates without an apparent mitochondrial release. The short interfering RNA-mediated knockdown experiments revealed that in BMD188-induced apoptosis, HSP60 has a pro-death function and that the pro-death role of HSP60 seems to involve caspase-3 maturation and activation in the cytosol. In contrast, HSP60 appears to play a pro-survival role in other apoptotic systems where there is no apparent mitochondrial release as its knockdown promotes cell death. In these latter apoptotic systems HSP60 does not associate with active caspase-3. In both cases, HSP60 does not appreciably interact with Bax. Taken together, our results suggest the following: 1) cytosolic accumulation of HSP60 represents a common phenomenon during apoptosis induction; 2) cytosolic HSP60 accumulation during apoptosis occurs either with or without apparent mitochondrial release; and 3) the cytosolically accumulated HSP60 possesses either pro-survival or pro-death functions, which involves differential interactions with caspase-3.     

Apoptosis Versus Cell Differentiation

Heat shock proteins HSP27, HSP70 and HSP90 are molecular chaperones whose expression is increased after many different types of stress. They have a protective function helping the cell to cope with lethal conditions. The cytoprotective function of HSPs is largely explained by their anti-apoptotic function. HSPs have been shown to interact with different key apoptotic proteins. As a result, HSPs can block essentially all apoptotic pathways, most of them involving the activation of cystein proteases called caspases. Apoptosis and differentiation are physiological processes that share many common features, for instance, chromatin condensation and the activation of caspases are frequently observed. It is, therefore, not surprising that many recent reports imply HSPs in the differentiation process. This review will comment on the role of HSP90, HSP70 and HSP27 in apoptosis and cell differentiation. HSPs may determine de fate of the cells by orchestrating the decision of apoptosis versus differentiation.     

Spontaneous apoptosis and expression of cell surface heat-shock proteins in cultured EL-4 lymphoma cells

Abstract. The expression of heat-shock proteins (HSPs) is enhanced in stressed cells and can protect cells from stress-induced injury. However, existing data about the relationship between apoptosis and HSP expression is contradictory. In this paper, a mouse lymphoma cell death model system is used to detect simultaneously both the process of apoptosis and the level of HSP expression. The model was established after discovering that spontaneous apoptosis and spontaneous cell surface HSP expression occurs in EL-4 mouse lymphoma cells during normal optimal culture conditions. The data show that apoptotic EL-4 cells had higher levels of hsp25, hsp60, hsp70 and hsp90 exposed on the plasma membrane surface than viable cells. The level of surface HSPs was found to increase through several stages of early and late apoptotic death as measured by flow cytometry, with the highest levels observed during the loss of cell membrane phospholipid asymmetry. Heat shock and actinomycin D significantly increased the proportion of apoptotic cells in culture. However, hyperthermia only stimulated a weak and temporary increase in surface HSP expression, whereas actinomycin D strongly elevated the level of surface and intracellular HSPs, particularly in live cells. These results show an associative relationship between apoptosis and HSP expression. The relationship between the progression of cell death and HSP expression suggests a role for membrane HSP expression in programmed cell death.     

HSP90 protects apoptotic cleavage of vimentin in geldanamycin-induced apoptosis

Heat shock protein (HSP) 90 is of interest as an anticancer drug target because of its importance in maintaining the conformation, stability and function of the client proteins involved in signal transduction pathways leading to proliferation, cell cycle progression, and apoptosis. Geldanamycin, a specific antagonist of HSP90, binds directly to HSP90 and promotes proteolytic degradation of client proteins of HSP90. The aim of the present study was to identify novel client proteins of HSP90 and to elucidate HSP90 function through inhibition of HSP90 binding to its client proteins, by using of geldanamycin. We investigated changes in protein profile when apoptosis was induced by exposure to geldanamycin. Differentially expressed proteins were identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS), in human neuroblastoma SK-N-SH cells. The vimentin level was found to decrease dramatically by the treatment of geldanamycin. We observed subcellular co-localization of vimentin and HSP90. Physical association of vimentin with HSP90 was detected by an immunoprecipitation assay. The caspase inhibitors, Z-VAD-FMK and Ac-DEVD-CHO, completely abolished geldanamycin-induced cleavage of vimentin. Changes of HSP90 level by antisense treatment or transfection of HSP90-overexpressing vector affected geldanamycin-induced cleavage of vimentin. These results suggest that HSP90 protects vimentin by physical interaction in the geldanamycin-induced apoptotic pathway.     

Pathogen-induced apoptotic neutrophils express heat shock proteins and elicit activation of human macrophages

Ingestion of aged or irradiated apoptotic neutrophils actively suppresses stimulation of macrophages (Mphi). Many bacterial pathogens can also provoke apoptosis in neutrophils, but little is known about how such apoptotic cells influence Mphi activation. We found that neutrophils undergoing apoptosis induced by UV irradiation, Escherichia coli, or Staphylococcus aureus could either stimulate or inhibit Mphi activation. In contrast to Mphi that had ingested irradiated apoptotic neutrophils, Mphi that had phagocytosed bacteria-induced apoptotic neutrophils exhibited markedly increased production of the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-alpha, but not the anti-inflammatory cytokine TGF-beta. Moreover, ingestion of bacteria, but not UV-induced apoptotic neutrophils, caused increased expression of FcgammaRI on Mphi, and this effect was not provoked directly by bacteria associated with the apoptotic neutrophils. Instead, we found that a link between pathogen-induced apoptotic neutrophils and up-regulation of the heat shock proteins HSP60 and HSP70, and we also observed that recombinant HSP60 and HSP70 potentiated LPS-stimulated production of TNF-alpha in Mphi. The opposing macrophage responses to neutrophils undergoing apoptosis induced in different ways may represent a novel mechanism that regulates the extent of the immune response to invading microbes in two steps: first by aiding the functions of Mphi at an early stage of infection, and subsequently by deactivating those cells through removal of uninfected apoptotic neutrophils. HSP induction in neutrophils may provide the danger signals required to generate a more effective macrophage response.     

Over‐expression of HSP70 attenuates caspase‐dependent and caspase‐independent pathways and inhibits neuronal apoptosis

HSP70 is a member of the family of heat‐shock proteins that are known to be up‐regulated in neurons following injury and/or stress. HSP70 over‐expression has been linked to neuroprotection in multiple models, including neurodegenerative disorders. In contrast, less is known about the neuroprotective effects of HSP70 in neuronal apoptosis and with regard to modulation of programmed cell death (PCD) mechanisms in neurons. We examined the effects of HSP70 over‐expression by transfection with HSP70‐expression plasmids in primary cortical neurons and the SH‐SY5Y neuronal cell line using four independent models of apoptosis: etoposide, staurosporine, C2‐ceramide, and β‐Amyloid. In these apoptotic models, neurons transfected with the HSP70 construct showed significantly reduced induction of nuclear apoptotic markers and/or cell death. Furthermore, we demonstrated that HSP70 binds and potentially inactivates Apoptotic protease‐activating factor 1, as well as apoptosis‐inducing factor, key molecules involved in development of caspase‐dependent and caspase‐independent PCD, respectively. Markers of caspase‐dependent PCD, including active caspase‐3, caspase‐9, and cleaved PARP were attenuated in neurons over‐expressing HSP70. These data indicate that HSP70 protects against neuronal apoptosis and suggest that these effects reflect, at least in part, to inhibition of both caspase‐dependent and caspase‐independent PCD pathways.     

Age-related alterations in expression of apoptosis regulatory proteins and heat shock proteins in rat skeletal muscle

Aging of skeletal muscle is often accompanied by muscle atrophy and it appears that apoptosis plays an important role in this process. The detailed mechanism(s) is not completely understood, however. In this study, we examined expression of the apoptosis regulatory proteins as well as the heat shock proteins, which have been shown to modulate the apoptotic process in certain cell types, in order to more completely elucidate apoptotic signaling in aged skeletal muscle. To more specifically identify alterations that are likely to be the result of aging, we compared 16-month-old middle-aged (MD) and 29-month-old senescent (SE) male Fischer 344 x Brown Norway rats in our study. Our results show that the degree of DNA laddering was higher in SE compared to MD rats. Using total tissue homogenates we examined the level of expression of several apoptosis-related proteins in two categories: mitochondria-associated proteins and caspases. Of the mitochondria-associated proteins, the levels of p53 showed a significant increase in SE compared to MD rats. There was also a significant increase in the expression of Bax, Bcl-2 and Apaf-1 in SE rats over that of MD rats; cytochrome c and AIF levels remained unchanged, however. Regarding the caspases, there were increases in the levels of pro-caspases-12 and -7 and cleaved caspase-9, although the levels of pro- and cleaved caspase-3 as well as cleaved caspase-12 remained unchanged. Furthermore, our results showed significant increases in HSP27, HSP60, and the inducible HSP70. These data show that in rat skeletal muscle increased apoptosis occurs between middle-age and senescence, indicating an aging-related increase in apoptosis in skeletal muscle. The involvement of different apoptotic pathways in the aging process is suggested by the selective alterations in the apoptosis regulatory proteins. The increased expression of the HSPs suggests a relationship between HSPs and the aging-related apoptotic process.     

HSP27 and HSP70: potentially oncogenic apoptosis inhibitors

Stress or heat shock proteins (HSPs) such as HSP27 and HSP70 are expressed in response to a wide variety of physiological and environmental insults including heat, reactive oxygen species or anticancer drugs. Their overexpression allows cells to survive to otherwise lethal conditions. Several different mechanisms may account for the cytoprotective activity of HSP27 and HSP70. First, both proteins are powerful chaperones. Second, both inhibit key effectors of the apoptotic machinery including the apoptosome, the caspase activation complex (both HSP27 and HSP70), and apoptosis inducing factor (only HSP70). Third, they both play a role in the proteasome-mediated degradation of apoptosis-regulatory proteins. HSP27 and HSP70 may participate in oncogenesis, as suggested by the fact that overexpression of heat shock proteins can increase the tumorigenic potential of tumor cells. The down-regulation or selective inhibition of HSP70 might constitute a valuable strategy for the treatment of cancer.