Geographical transferrin polymorphism inMacaca mulatta

Five hundred forty-five serum samples from rhesus monkeys imported to the Sukhumi monkey nursery from India, China, and Viet-Nam were investigated by the starch gel electrophoresis method. A high level of transferrin polymorphism was noted, 11 alleles and 38 phenotypes being detected.Statistical verification of transferrin distribution correspondence to theHardy-Weinberg equation revealed a statistically significant excess of monkeys with Tf DD in the Vietnamese group and in the group of monkeys imported from India in 1950–1968. The adaptive advantage of monkeys with this phenotype is believed possible. Analysis of genetical dissociation makes it possible to suggest that there exist two populations of rhesus monkeys, namely, the Chinese-Vietnamese and Indian.     

Current Status of Macaca mulatta in Taihangshan Mountains Area, Jiyuan, Henan, China

Primatologists have classified rhesus macaques of the Taihangshan Mountains area as Macaca mulatta tcheliensis, a subspecies confined to China. The northernmost area of its distribution is in the southern part of the Taihangshan Mountains, which includes a National Nature Reserve established in 1998. To investigate the current status of the subspecies, we surveyed the population and distribution of macaque groups in Jiyuan, Henan, China. In addition, we investigated habitat preferences and the food items foraged by macaques during winter and early spring. The results show that: 1) ca. 2100 macaques currently inhabit the Taihangshan Mountains National Nature Reserve, mainly in Jiyuan; 2) fragmentation of habitats of rhesus macaques have become severe in recent years; and 3) food resources are very poor during the long winter and the early spring. Macaques in the Taihangshan Mountains feed mainly on seeds, twigs, and bark and the eggs of some insects.     

A new subspecies of Tesia olivea (Sylviidae) from Chiang Mai province, northern Thailand

We collected several individuals of the Slaty-bellied Tesia Tesia olivea in the temperate rain forest of the sub-Himalayan region of northeastern Burma/Myanmar in February/March 2004 and March 2006. Subsequent comparison of these with T. olivea from northeastern India and northern Thailand revealed that while our northeastern Burma/Myanmar birds were similar to those from northeastern India, specimens of both populations were distinctly different from T. olivea from Chiang Mai Province of northern Thailand and northern Vietnam. Herein, we designate the latter populations as members of a new subspecies of T. olivea based on analyses of variations in morphometric characters, plumage, song, and mitochondrial (mt)DNA sequence.     

利用微卫星遗传标记对恒河猴进行遗传同质性分群的探索

目的探索建立利用微卫星遗传标记对中国恒河猴免疫遗传学同质性分群的方法。方法根据已报道的中国恒河猴和印度恒河猴微卫星标记和与MHC基因高度连锁的微卫星遗传标记,对52只恒河猴进行了微卫星检测和遗传同质性分群。结果依据判断标准,可以将检测的恒河猴分为印度恒河猴,中国恒河猴和无法判定来源的恒河猴3个地理类别,并根据MHC附近的微卫星遗传标记将其分为若干MHC基因相同的同质性群体。结论此方法的建立将有利于恒河猴参与的实验分组,也为恒河猴繁殖管理提供了参考。     

中国和印度猕猴(Macaca mulatta)两个种群颅骨的比较

中国云南中南部和印度的猕猴(Macaca mulatta)两个种群的颅骨形态以及等位基因的比较研究结果表明:两者的面宽、颅的形态大小和等位基因频率均存在较大差异。这些差异也分别存在于印度种群(M.m.mulatta)与西藏亚种(M.m.vestita),川西亚种(M.m.lasiotis),泰国种群和越南种群之间。在20个血蛋白等位基因中,仅约8个是各亚种或种群共有的,代表共同的离征或祖征。因此,云南中南部标本既不是印度指名亚种,也不是泰国的siamica亚种,其亚种名应重新厘定。大陆型分布的猕猴区域性种群之间的遗传异质性大于同质性。上述差异可能是随机遗传漂变的产物。     

Phylogenetic relationships among Japanese, rhesus, Formosan, and crab- eating monkeys, inferred from restriction-enzyme analysis of mitochondrial DNAs [published erratum appears in Mol Biol Evol 1988 Sep;5(5):601]

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) polymorphisms in four species of macaques, i.e., Japanese monkey (Macaca fuscata), rhesus monkey (M. mulatta), Formosan monkey (M. cyclopis), and crab-eating monkey (M. fascicularis), were analyzed to study phylogenetic relationships. When 17 restriction enzymes of 6-bp recognition were used, 42-49 sites were observed in the samples. The estimated number of nucleotide substitutions per site among Japanese, rhesus, and Formosan monkeys ranges from 0.0318 to 0.0396, and that between the crab-eating monkey and the other monkeys from 0.0577 to 0.0653. These findings suggest that the crab-eating monkey diverged from the other three approximately 1.5-3.0 Myr before the present (Mybp) and that the Japanese, rhesus, and Formosan monkeys diverged approximately 0.9-1.8 Mybp, although the branching order cannot be determined conclusively.      

Bacteriophage typing of Salmonella weltevreden

Salmonella weltevreden has been found to be one of the commonest Salmonella serotypes isolated from diverse sources in India and has also been isolated in a number of other countries. A phage typing scheme was developed for this serotype using a set of six typing phages. These phages had been selected out of 146 phage strains isolated and purified from stool samples of man, laboratory animals and other animals, sewage and surface water sources, and the lytic mutants of temperate phages from S. weltevreden.The phage typing scheme was applied systematically to type the 946 strains from India isolated during 1958–1974 and 148 strains originating from Australia, Burma, England, Gan Island, Holland, Hong Kong, Malaysia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, The Philippines, Thailand, The United States and Vietnam during 1953–1971. The scheme was particularly studied to evaluate its utility in mapping the epidemiologically related strains from various sources.The S. weltevreden strains could be classified into ten phage types. Phage types 2 and 7 were found exclusively amongst Indian strains, type 6 from Vietnam and type 8 from Burma, Thailand and Vietnam. Phage types were found to be stable and consistent with the independent epidemiological data available.     

中国猕猴的分类及分布

本文根据外部形态、头骨特征及地理分布,对猕猴（Macaca mulatta）在中国的亚种分类进行了重新整理。结果表明M.m.mulatta、M.m.breuvcaudus、M.m.lasiotis、M.m.littoralis和M.m.uestita均为有效亚种,M.m.tcheliensis可能也是一有效亚种。     

The distribution pattern of rhesus and Assamese monkeys in Nepal

Surveys of the distribution and some ecological characteristics of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and Assamese monkeys (M. assamensis) in Nepal were conducted during 234 days in 1976, 1978, and 1984. Rhesus monkeys dominated in the tropical, subtropical, and temperate forests below 3,000 m a.s.l. all over Nepal. Assamese monkeys were patchily distributed along rivers in the tropical and subtropical areas. Both species principally utilized forests parapatrically. The mean troop size of rhesus monkeys (29.5) was significantly larger than that of Assamese monkeys (19.1). Discontinuous distribution of Assamese monkeys probably appeared as a result of the expansion of rhesus monkey distribution in the mid- and late-Pleistocene. Because of small distribution areas and small numbers of monkeys, urgent conservation policy must be pursued.     

The high genetic homology of threeMacaca fascicularis and twoMacaca mulatta subspecies on the basis of their highly repeated DNA restriction patterns

We have studied highly repeated DNA sequences of three subspecies ofM. fascicularis (M.f. philippinensis M.f. mordax, M.f. fusca) and of two subspecies ofM. mulatta (M.m. lasiotus, M.m. mulatta). Restriction patterns were obtained after digestion with 9 restriction endonucleases and evidenced after southern blotting and hybridization with Bam HI satellite DNA fragments fromM. fascicularis subspecies. M. fascicularis andM. mulatta subspecies studied, present morphological differences but indistinguishable karyotypes: highly repeated DNA analysis, resulting in the same restriction patterns for all the restriction sites studied with highly repeated DNA probes characteristic of the threeM. fascicularis subspecies, gave arguments in favour of the high genetic homology ofM.f. philippinensis, M.f. mordax, M.f. fusca on one side, andM.m. lasiotus andM.m. mulatta on the other, which can be distinguished only on the basis of morphological criteria.     

Partial recovery and a new population estimate of rhesus monkey populations in India

The purpose of this field study has been to assess major changes in rhesus monkey populations of north central India over a period of 28 yrs from 1959 to 1986. Population censuses have been done in Aligarh District three times per year, and extensive regional surveys were done in 1959–1960, 1964–1965, 1977–1978, and 1985–1986. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, rhesus populations in India declined more than 90%, from an estimated 2 million animals in 1960 to approximately 180,000 by 1980. These declines were attributed to increasing agricultural pressures in India, loss of primate habitats, less protection for monkeys, and high levels of trapping. In the 1970s, as India's agricultural production rose and stronger wildlife conservation programs developed, local populations of rhesus began to increase. These increases became more prominent after 1978, when India imposed a ban on export of monkeys. By 1985 a population in Aligarh District had returned to its 1960 level in total population size, although the number of groups remained low. Other local populations showed even more striking growth and greatly exceeded former levels. Some areas of India, however, have shown no improvement in rhesus populations. Overall, extensive field surveys of rural habitats in 1985–1986 showed a 53% recovery in the number of rhesus groups, and a 129% recovery in total rhesus from their low points in 1977–1978. We estimate the rhesus population of India in 1985 in the vicinity of 410,000–460,000 individuals.     

Trachypithecus auratus sangiranensis,A New Fossil Monkey from Sangiran,Central Java,Indonesia

We describe a new extinct subspecies of the Javan lutung—Trachypithecus auratus sangiranensis—based on an isolated, tooth-bearing upper jaw. The specimen was in volcanic breccia situated between the Lower Pucangan and the Upper Kalibeng Formations 500 m south of the village of Sangiran, near Surakarta, central Java, Indonesia. The new fossil monkey bears morphological similarities to the two living species of leaf monkey from Java, Presbytis comata comata and Trachypithecus auratus auratus, and to the Middle Pleistocene form, Trachypithecus cristatus [=auratus] robustus, from Tegoean, central Java. It is significantly larger than any of these forms, and differs from them in details of dental anatomy. Because the greatest number of similarities are between the new fossil and Trachypithecus auratus subspecies, we designated the specimen as T. a. sangiranensis. The geochronological age of the breccia from which the fossil came, is 1.9± 0.05 Ma (million years), making T. a. sangiranensis one of the oldest fossil monkeys from eastern Asia.     

Mitochondrial DNA variation in Chinese and Indian rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)

DNA was extracted from the buffy coats or serum of 212 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) sampled throughout the species' geographic range. An 835 base pair (bp) fragment of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was amplified from each sample, sequenced, aligned, and used to estimate genetic distances from which phylogenetic trees were constructed. A tree that included sequences from rhesus macaques whose exact origins in China are known was used to determine the regional origin of clusters of haplotypes, or haplogroups, defined by the trees. Indian rhesus sequences formed one large homogeneous haplogroup with very low levels of nucleotide diversity and no geographic structure, and a second much smaller haplogroup apparently derived from Burma. The sequences from Burma and eastern and western China were quite divergent from those in the major haplogroup of India. Each of these sequences formed separate clusters of haplotypes that exhibited far greater nucleotide diversity and/or population structure. Correspondingly, sequences from Indian rhesus macaques that are considered to represent different subspecies (based on morphological differences) were intermingled in the tree, while those from China reflected some, but not all, aspects of subspecific taxonomy. Regional variation contributed 72% toward the paired differences between sequences in an analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), and the average differences between the populations of eastern and western China were also statistically significant. These results suggest that Indian and Chinese rhesus macaques were reproductively isolated during most, if not all, of the Pleistocene, during which time Indian rhesus macaques experienced a severe genetic bottleneck, and that some gene flow westward into India was subsequently reestablished. Samples from breeding centers in three different provinces of China included sequences from rhesus macaques that originated in both eastern (or southern) and western China, confirming anecdotal reports that regional breeding centers in China exchange breeding stock. Genetic differences among rhesus macaques (even those acquired from the same regional breeding center) that originate in different geographic regions and are employed as subjects in biomedical experiments can contribute to phenotypic differences in the traits under study.     

Molecular phylogenetic relationships among Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellanae) inferred from mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene sequences

The Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellanae) is a species endemic to China, and its distribution is the widest among all snub-nosed monkeys in China. To clarify whether there is subspecific differentiation within this species, we determined partial sequences of the cytochrome-b gene from four populations ofR. roxellanae. First, 402bps of the partial sequences fromR. roxellanae were compared with those fromR. bieti andR. avunculus, and the phylogenetic tree was constructed by the neighbor-joining method. The genetic distance was only 0–0.002 among the four populations, and their sequences constituted a monophyletic group. Further, comparison of longer sequences (735bp) among the four populations revealed that there were only four substitutions and the genetic distance was only 0.001–0.005 among them. Thus, we suggest that, at least on mtDNA phylogeny, the difference among the four populations does not reach the subspecies level, and that this species should be recognized as a monotypic species.     

RFLP analysis of theHLA-, ChLA-, andRhLA-DQ alpha chain gene regions: Conservation of restriction sites during evolution

Genomic DNA samples, derived from a panel of 60 chimpanzees and 45 rhesus monkeys, were digested with the restriction enzymesTaq I andBgl II and hybridized with an HLA-DQ alpha chain cDNA probe. The results were compared with the data available on a human reference panel. Use of the restriction enzymeTaq I and the DQ alpha chain probe allows the detection of fiveHLA-DQA1 and twoHLA-DQA2 gene-associated fragments within the human population. For the ChLA and RhLA systems, 3 and 7 different DQA1-associated restriction patterns were detected, respectively, while for the chimpanzee a nonpolymorphicDQA2 (DX alpha) gene-associated fragment was also observed. The equivalent of theHLA- andChLA-DQA2 genes appears to be absent in the rhesus monkey. TheChLA-DQA1 and-DQA2 gene-associated RFLP patterns are identical in man and chimpanzee, whereas such restriction site conservation is not seen in the rhesus monkey. The conclusion drawn is that the genetic organization of theHLA-DQA andChLA-DQA gene regions, and possibly some of their allelic variabilities, already existed before man and chimpanzee separated in evolution. Moreover, the particular duplication which led to the generation of theHLA- andChLA-DQA2 genes must have happened before speciation of members belonging to the superfamily Hominoidea (man, chimpanzee, etc), but probably after the separation of superfamily Cercopitecoidea (rhesus monkeys, baboons, etc.) from Hominoidea.     

Copper,iron, manganese,and zinc content of hair from two populations of rhesus monkeys

The concentrations of the elements copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn) in hair of caged (in Maryland) and freeranging (in Puerto Rico) rhesus monkey populations were determined. Significant chronological age-related decreases were evident for the trace elements Mn and Zn in both populations (P<0.01) and for Cu and Fe in free-ranging monkeys (P<0.005). The only overall gender difference was higher hair Mn concentration in freeranging males than in females (P<0.03). There were no significant differences in hair Cu, Fe, or Mn related to pregnancy status. Hair Zn was lower in samples from pregnant than from nonpregnant monkeys from the caged monkeys (P≤0.05), but did not differe in the freeranging monkeys. Comparison of the two populations revealed that hair Zn levels were significantly higher in caged vs free-ranging animals (P<0.001). We attribute this higher hair Zn in the caged monkeys to contact and ingestion of Zn from their galvanized enclosures. Hair iron levels were significantly higher (P<0.001) in free-ranging monkeys, possibly as a result of Fe-rich soil ingestion from their environment. These data support continued investigation of the use of hair as an indicator of the exposure of large groups or populations to potentially high levels of specific minerals, and the use of nonhuman primates as models for the study of trace element deficiency and/or toxicity in humans. Prelliminary reports of portions of these data were presented at the 69th Annual Meeting of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, April 1982, New Orleans, LA (B. M. Marriott, J. C. Smith, R. Jacobs, A. O. Jones, M. J. Kessler, and R. Rawlins,Fed. Proc. 41:770, [1982]) and in a symposium at the 6th Annual Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists, 1983, East Lansing, MI (B. Marriott, J. C. Smith, R. Jacobs, A. O. Lee Jones, R. Rawlins, and M. J. Kessler,Am. J. Primatol. 4(3): 157 [1983]; B. Marriott, J. C. Smith, Jr., R. M. Jacobs, A. O. Lee Jones, R. Rawlins, and M. J. Kessler, inThe Cayo Santiago Macaques, R. Rawlins and M. J. Kessler, eds., SUNY Press, Albany, NY, pp. 219–231 [1986]).     

Species discrimination and concept formation by rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

There are 19 species in genusMacaca and some of them are living in sympatry (Fooden, 1980). Although inter-specific hybrids are relatively easy to produce under artificial conditions, hybridization does not occur naturally. What is preventing that among the species of genusMacaca? Three rhesus monkeys acquired a discrimination between pictures with rhesus monkeys and without rhesus monkeys. All subjects showed positive transfer of this discrimination to new pictures with rhesus monkeys and without rhesus monkeys. A further test showed that these monkeys could discriminate between pictures of rhesus monkeys and pictures of Japanese monkeys. The results suggest that rhesus monkeys recognize rhesus monkeys as a class, independent of the actual stimuli such as a picture or an individual monkey. The ability to recognize members of their own species and the opportunities for such learning may be an important factor preventing hybridization among the species of genusMacaca.     

Patterns of habitat selection and use by Macaca mulatta tcheliensis in winter and early spring in temperate forest, Jiyuan, China

The chosen habitat of any animal species comprises a range of environmental features that provide adequate resources for its continuous survival. Consequently, the criteria of habitat selection by animals, combines a wider spectrum of both environmental and extrinsic factors, with major prerequisites based on food resources, availability of shelter and suitable ethics for procreation. From this study, conducted in winter and early spring, at Mt. Wangwushan area, located on 35°05′–35°15′ N, 112°12′–112°22′ E, in Taihangshan Macaque National Nature Reserve (TMNNR), Jiyuan, Henan Province, we show by elaborative results that Macaca mulatta tcheliensis was specifically associated with the following habitat characteristics: (1) the average tree DBH (diameter at breast height) with over 15 cm; (2) the distance from human disturbance of less than 2000 m; (3) the distance to water with less than 1000 m; (4) the gradient of mountain slope of 15°∼40°; (5) which was markedly tarrying with the altitude ranges from 1000 m to 1300 m; and (6) where the canopy coverage was less than 60%. In addition, during this study, rhesus macaque mostly inhabited the sunny slopes of mountains than the shady areas. Results of the first five principal components analysis (PCA) accounted for the total variance of 68.88%, while the other factors showed insignificant effects on habitat selection by rhesus macaque in the temperate forest. In conclusion, these new results increase our understanding on the living status, under the harshest condition, in winter and early spring of Macaca mulatta tcheliensis, the subspecies of rhesus macaques as may be linked to its habitat selection and utilization, in the temperate forest.     

Amino acids in the plasma of fasting Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata fuscata andM. f. yakui)

The plasma levels of 26 amino acids and related compounds were determined in five male and five female adult members of each of the two subspecies of Japanese monkeys,Macaca fuscata fuscata andM. f. yakui. Activities of L-asparaginase and histaminase in plasma were also measured.Numerous differences in amino acid levels between the sexes in the subspeciesfuscata were noted, with the female consistently exhibiting lower values. Few differences were observed between the sexes of the subspeciesyakui or between the two subspecies of Japanese monkeys. These monkeys were similar to other previously studied nonhuman primates in exhibiting measurable levels of 3-methylhistidine in plasma. There were numerous quantitative differences among Japanese monkeys and stump-tailed macaques, rhesus monkeys, chimpanzees, and man, with the Japanese monkeys usually exhibiting higher plasma levels.L-asparaginase activity was not detectable in these Japanese monkeys. Histaminase activity was similar to that previously measured in pig-tailed macaques and chimpanzees, lower than that in rhesus monkeys and stump-tailed macaques, and higher than that in man.     

Conservation note: Socioecology and conservation of macaques and langurs in Varanasi,India

A survey of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus) was conducted in urban and forest areas of Varanasi, India. Data were collected on group size and composition. Nine groups of rhesus monkeys inhabited various urban niches, but langurs were completely absent from urban areas. Approximately 159 rhesus monkeys and 720 langurs lived in the forested area. Both the urban and the forested habitats of this area are being reduced in size, and it is suggested that these populations be moved to nearby forest preserves.