A preliminary assessment of congruence between biodiversity patterns in Afrotropical forest birds and forest mammals

Burgess, N., de Klerk, H., Fjeldsá, J., Crowe, T. & Rahbek, R. 2000. A preliminary assessment of congruence between biodiversity patterns in Afrotropical forest birds and forest mammals. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 286–291.

Databases compiled for forest birds and forest mammals in the Afrotropics were tested for congruence of overall patterns and hotspots of species richness and endemism. We also looked at how well a near-minimum set of priority areas for one taxon catered for the second taxon. Overall species richness and richness hotspots of forest birds were significantly correlated with those of forest mammals, as was the case for overall endemism. Endemism hotspots for forest birds and mammals were not significantly correlated. The near-minimum set for forest birds represented 136 (76.5%) forest mammal species. The near-minimum set for forest mammals represented 350 (93.62%) forest bird species. However, to represent all forest mammals three times each, 51 grids were needed in addition to the 78 chosen as a near-minimum set for forest birds, and to represent all forest birds three times each, 43 more grids were needed in addition to the 80 selected for forest mammals. There is some congruence between the patterns of richness, endemism and near-minimum sets for forest birds and mammals in the Afrotropics, but the one taxon does not provide the ideal conservation solution for the other. Further refinement of the databases used in this paper would allow for more rigorous testing of congruence between these two groups.     

Do population indicators work? Investigating correlated responses of bird populations in relation to predator management

Using population indicators to evaluate conservation achievements is widely practised, yet seldom empirically tested. If populations are consistently correlated in response to a shared ecological driver, the indicator species approach can be used as a cost-effective, ecologically-based shortcut to measuring the effects of conservation management. Long-term monitoring of forest bird populations associated with mammalian pest control programmes in New Zealand provides a useful framework for testing the population indicator species concept. We evaluated population trends in 21 bird species vulnerable to predation by introduced mammals (primarily mustelids and rodents) at managed and unmanaged beech (Nothofagus) forest sites. Correlated population trends between species pairs were detected at individual sites. However, neither positive nor negative correlations in species trends could be predicted by life history traits and predator management did not produce consistent, correlated population trends among sites. Our results do not support the use of a population indicator approach to management and reporting for forest birds in New Zealand. Relationships between purported indicator taxa and other species need to be understood for various management scenarios before population indicators can be confidently applied to measuring conservation achievement.     

Introduction by the Chairman

Tropical forest ecosystems are the world's richest and most complex habitats and globally recognised for their importance in the human survival. Birds constitute an important component of tropical forests, not only in terms of their diversity, but also in terms of their role in the ecosystem. However, despite great advances made in our knowledge and protection of tropical forest birds, our efforts remain inadequate, particularly in Africa. African forests are being cut down by a very high rate (4 million hectare disappearing per year), putting at risk so many bird species, that the first challenge for research and conservation is to help managers in identifying priorities.

The relationship emphasised by the theme of the PAOC 9 “Birds, Habitats and People” is well examined during the symposium on the “Conservation of Forest Birds in Afiica”. The papers presented cover a wide range of topics. A broad scale analysis on the congruence between forest birds and mammals (Neil et al.) compares species richness and species endemism in the Afrotropical region. Larison et al. compare avian biodiversity of montane forest birds of northern Cameroon and Bioko island and evaluate their conservation potential based on species richness and human impacts and attitudes. A similar approach is done by Waiyaki and Bennun on birds of coastal forests in southern Kenya, while Math et al. examine the distribution the east Coast Akalat Sheppardia gunningi sokokensis in one single forest of Arabuko-Sokoke. The major threat to tropical forests today is the selective logging. The effect of this issue is presented by Dranzoa in a case study from Uganda's Kibale National Park.

Results of these papers show the necessity to take into account the particular requirements of all species in the management of the forest, the socio-cultural considerations in implementation of conservation measures, the necessity of policy changes in some cases and the necessity of further research.     

Patterns of frugivore species richness and abundance in forest islands and in agricultural habitats at Los Tuxtlas,Mexico

Destruction and fragmentation of tropical rain forest result in a loss of species and of generating capacity of the ecosystem via animal vectors such as seed dispersal agents. To gather quantitative data regarding this ecological problem, birds and mammals were censused in 30 forest fragments, 15 agricultural islands representing five types of vegetation (coffee, cacao, citrus, pepper and mixed-crops) and in three pastures in Los Tuxtlas, southern Veracruz, Mexico. More than 6000 animals of 257 species were detected thus suggesting the existence of a rich species pool in the fragmented landscape. Frugivores accounted for 60% of species, for 72% of individuals censured and for 85% of the total animal biomass recorded. Clusters of small forest fragments (<100 ha) were richer in species and individuals than clusters of large area (>100 ha) forest islands. Pastures were especially poor in forest birds and mammals. While the agricultural islands studied contributed to only 1% of the total area of vegetation sampled, they contained 58% of all species detected and 34% of all individual birds and mammals censured. Recaptures indicated inter-island movements of forest birds and mammals. Forty percent of the species were detected in forest habitats only, the rest were detected in forest and in agricultural habitats. Seeds of forest interior plants dispersed by birds and bats were detected in the agricultural habitats. The value of agricultural islands as landscape features providing some degree of biotic connectivity among fragmented animal populations is discussed.     

Biogeographic patterns of the East African coastal forest vertebrate fauna

The archipelago-like coastal forest of East Africa is one of the highest priority ecosystems for biodiversity conservation worldwide. Here we investigate patterns of species richness and biogeographic distribution among birds, mammals and reptiles of these forests, using distribution data obtained from recently published reviews and information collated by the WWF Eastern Africa Coastal Forest Ecoregion Programme. Birds and mammals species were divided into forest specialists and generalists, and forest specialist reptiles into ‘coastal’ and ‘forest’ endemics. The species richness of birds and generalist mammals increased with area, and is probably a result of area-dependent extinction. Only in birds, however, species richness increased with decreasing isolation, suggesting possible isolation-dependent colonization. Forest diversity, associated to altitudinal range, is important for specialist birds and mammals, whose species richness increased with wider altitudinal range. The number of relict coastal endemic and forest endemic reptiles was higher in forests with wider altitudinal ranges and on relatively higher altitude, respectively. Such forests have probably provided a suitable (and perhaps stable) environment for these species through time, thus increasing their persistence. Parsimony analysis of distributions (PAD) and cluster analyses showed geographical distance and general ecological similarity among forests as a determinant factor in bird distribution patterns, with compositional similarity decreasing with increasing inter-forest distance. Compositional similarity patterns of mammals among the forests did not show a strong geographical correspondence or a significant correlation with inter-forest distance, and those of reptiles were not resolved, with very low similarity levels among forest faunas. Our results suggest that the relative importance (and causal relationship) of forest attributes affecting the distribution of the East African coastal forest vertebrate fauna varies depending on life history traits such as dispersal ability and forest specialization. The groupings in PAD are partly congruent with some of the previous classifications of areas of endemism for this region, supporting the ‘naturalness’ of these regions.     

Priority areas for the conservation of subtropical indigenous forest in southern Africa: a case study from KwaZulu-Natal

Southern Africa's subtropical forest biome, though small and highly fragmented, supports much of the region's biodiversity. With limited resources available for conservation and the exploitative use of forest escalating, identifying a network of priority forest reserves is important. We examine the distribution of forest birds, butterflies and mammals in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Using an iterative algorithm we explore the efficiency of existing protected areas, species richness and rarity hotspots, prime forest sites (selected by forest area) and complementary networks as alternative approaches to priority reserve selection, as well as the potential use of indicator taxa. Existing protected areas represent 98% of species but are relatively inefficient in terms of area. Alternative selection criteria represent a high proportion of species (86–92%) and provide efficient bases for developing fully representative reserve networks. All species are represented within a network of 22 complementary quarter degree cells. This network includes several larger forests and existing protected areas and is recommended for priority conservation. Complementary networks identified separately for birds, butterflies and mammals overlap little, but each represents a high proportion of the remaining taxa, supporting their potential as representative 'indicator' taxa. The evolutionary history of the three main forest types in KwaZulu-Natal explains observed spatial patterns of alternative reserve networks. Priority areas are concentrated in scarp and coastal forest belts, regions of comparatively recent evolutionary activity with high species richness. Afromontane forest is older and less diverse, but its inclusion in any reserve network is necessary for the full representation of forest diversity.     

Trends and prospects for local knowledge in ecological and conservation research and monitoring

Local ecological knowledge (LEK) of those who earn their livelihoods from natural environments has long been recognized as providing far-reaching insights into ecological processes. It is being increasingly used by ecologists to address diverse questions that often focus on applied conservation issues and may incorporate local knowledge with biological data from more conventional research and monitoring. We characterize how LEK has been used in the ecological and conservation literature over the last 25 years by broadly examining 360 journals and by evaluating 12 prominent ecological and conservation journals in greater detail. Over this period, the use of LEK has increased considerably, although only 0.01% of papers in the broad and 0.42% of those in the more detailed evaluation incorporated LEK. Despite this increase, LEK-based publications remain nearly absent from the more established theoretical literature and are largely restricted to more recent and arguably less prestigious applied and interdisciplinary journals. Most LEK studies used interviews, but generally failed to actively include community members in the research process. Changes to the research and publishing process that include local people and address these shortcomings and the broader issues of power and influence in the sciences are critical to the successful utilization of LEK. These changes are necessary for the appropriate depiction of these knowledge systems and to ensure that local knowledge holders will continue participating in ecological research aimed at conservation.     

当地生态知识在海洋哺乳动物研究中的应用与展望

当地生态知识(local ecological knowledge,LEK)是指人们在长期的生活体验和生产实践中,获得的有关周边环境、生物资源及其相互关系的经验和知识。近几十年来,LEK在海洋哺乳动物研究中得到了广泛的应用和发展,尤其是在基础相对薄弱的发展中国家或地区,LEK作为一种低成本、短周期且适合大范围调查的手段,日益成为研究人员获取目标物种生态信息的重要渠道。LEK与野外实地调查等获得的数据可以互补,从而为评估海洋哺乳动物的生存状况和环境变化提供多维度的信息来源;该方法还往往是了解目标物种生存状况历史变动的有效手段,回答传统方法很难甚至无法回答的科学问题,如目标物种在较长时间尺度上的生态信息历史变化趋势等。本文介绍了LEK的定义及特征、海洋哺乳动物及其传统生态调查方法、LEK在海洋哺乳动物中的研究进展、应用LEK开展海洋哺乳动物研究的步骤,还讨论了LEK在我国海洋哺乳动物研究中的应用前景和推广价值,旨在为今后相关研究提供参考资料。     

Canopy bird assemblages are less influenced by habitat age and isolation than understory bird assemblages in Neotropical secondary forest

Secondary forest habitats are increasingly recognized for their potential to conserve biodiversity in the tropics. However, the development of faunal assemblages in secondary forest systems varies according to habitat quality and species‐specific traits. In this study, we predicted that the recovery of bird assemblages is dependent on secondary forest age and level of isolation, the forest stratum examined, and the species’ traits of feeding guild and body mass. This study was undertaken in secondary forests in central Panama; spanning a chronosequence of 60‐, 90‐, and 120‐year‐old forests, and in neighboring old‐growth forest. To give equal attention to all forest strata, we employed a novel method that paired simultaneous surveys in canopy and understory. This survey method provides a more nuanced picture than ground‐based studies, which are biased toward understory assemblages. Bird reassembly varied according to both habitat age and isolation, although it was challenging to separate these effects, as the older sites were also more isolated than the younger sites. In combination, habitat age and isolation impacted understory birds more than canopy‐dwelling birds. Proportions of dietary guilds did not vary with habitat age, but were significantly different between strata. Body mass distributions were similar across forest ages for small‐bodied birds, but older forest supported more large‐bodied birds, probably due to control of poaching at these sites. Canopy assemblages were characterized by higher species richness, and greater variation in both dietary breadth and body mass, relative to understory assemblages. The results highlight that secondary forests may offer critical refugia for many bird species, particularly specialist canopy‐dwellers. However, understory bird species may be less able to adapt to novel and isolated habitats and should be the focus of conservation efforts encouraging bird colonization of secondary forests.     

Yet Another Empty Forest: Considering the Conservation Value of a Recently Established Tropical Nature Reserve

The primary approach used to conserve tropical biodiversity is in the establishment of protected areas. However, many tropical nature reserves are performing poorly and interventions in the broader landscape may be essential for conserving biodiversity both within reserves and at large. Between October 2010 and 2012, we conducted bird surveys in and around a recently established nature reserve in Xishuangbanna, China. We constructed a checklist of observed species, previously recorded species, and species inferred to have occurred in the area from their distributions and habitat requirements. In addition, we assessed variation in community composition and habitat specificity at a landscape-scale. Despite the fact that the landscape supports a large area of natural forest habitat (~50,000 ha), we estimate that >40% of the bird fauna has been extirpated and abundant evidence suggests hunting is the primary cause. A large proportion (52%) of the bigger birds (>20 cm) were extirpated and for large birds there was a U-shaped relationship between habitat breadth and extirpation probability. Habitat specificity was low and bird communities were dominated by widespread species of limited conservation concern. We question whether extending tropical protected area networks will deliver desired conservation gains, unless much greater effort is channeled into addressing the hunting problem both within existing protected areas and in the broader landscape.     

Standardized Assessment of Biodiversity Trends in Tropical Forest Protected Areas: The End Is Not in Sight

Extinction rates in the Anthropocene are three orders of magnitude higher than background and disproportionately occur in the tropics, home of half the world’s species. Despite global efforts to combat tropical species extinctions, lack of high-quality, objective information on tropical biodiversity has hampered quantitative evaluation of conservation strategies. In particular, the scarcity of population-level monitoring in tropical forests has stymied assessment of biodiversity outcomes, such as the status and trends of animal populations in protected areas. Here, we evaluate occupancy trends for 511 populations of terrestrial mammals and birds, representing 244 species from 15 tropical forest protected areas on three continents. For the first time to our knowledge, we use annual surveys from tropical forests worldwide that employ a standardized camera trapping protocol, and we compute data analytics that correct for imperfect detection. We found that occupancy declined in 22%, increased in 17%, and exhibited no change in 22% of populations during the last 3–8 years, while 39% of populations were detected too infrequently to assess occupancy changes. Despite extensive variability in occupancy trends, these 15 tropical protected areas have not exhibited systematic declines in biodiversity (i.e., occupancy, richness, or evenness) at the community level. Our results differ from reports of widespread biodiversity declines based on aggregated secondary data and expert opinion and suggest less extreme deterioration in tropical forest protected areas. We simultaneously fill an important conservation data gap and demonstrate the value of large-scale monitoring infrastructure and powerful analytics, which can be scaled to incorporate additional sites, ecosystems, and monitoring methods. In an era of catastrophic biodiversity loss, robust indicators produced from standardized monitoring infrastructure are critical to accurately assess population outcomes and identify conservation strategies that can avert biodiversity collapse.     

Land use types influenced avian assemblage structure in a forest–agriculture landscape in Ghana

The conservation of biodiversity within tropical forest regions does not lie only in the maintenance of natural forest areas, but on conservation strategies directed toward agricultural land types within which they are embedded. This study investigated variations in bird assemblages of different functional groups of forest‐dependent birds in three agricultural land types, relative to distance from the interior of 34 tropical forest patches of varying sizes. Point counts were used to sample birds at each study site visited. Data from counts were used to estimate species richness, species evenness, and Simpson's diversity of birds. Mean species richness, evenness, and diversity were modeled as responses and as a function of agricultural land type, distance from the forest interior and three site‐scale vegetation covariates (density of large trees, fruiting trees, and patch size) using generalized linear mixed‐effect models. Mean observed species richness of birds varied significantly within habitat types. Mean observed species richness was highest in forest interior sites while sites located in farm centers recorded the lowest mean species richness. Species richness of forest specialists was strongly influenced by the type of agricultural land use. Fallow lands, density of large trees, and patch size strongly positively influenced forest specialists. Insectivorous and frugivorous birds were more species‐rich in fallow lands while monoculture plantations favored nectarivorous birds. Our results suggest that poor agricultural practices can lead to population declines of forest‐dependent birds particularly specialist species. Conservation actions should include proper land use management that ensures heterogeneity through retention of native tree species on farms in tropical forest‐agriculture landscapes.     

Conservation of mammals on a tobacco farm on the Highlands of Malawi

The natural vegetation of the Shire Highlands of Malawi has become fragmented because of human activities. As a consequence, some species of mammals have become locally extinct and the population numbers and geographical ranges of other species have declined. This study investigated the species richness of mammals on a commercial tobacco farm, and the importance of remnants of natural vegetation on farms for the conservation of mammals. The farm covered 180 ha and supported 44 species of mammals (equivalent to 66% of the species known to occur in the Shire Highlands at a similar altitude, and 24% of the total mammalian fauna of Malawi). Most of the species were bats (22 species) and rodents (13 species). The largest remnants of natural 'miombo' woodland supported more species and more individuals than smaller remnants. The high species richness was due, in part, to the variety of different habitats on the farm ('miombo' woodland, riverine forest, grassland, swamp, streams and dams), as well as to good conservation practices. The farm is especially important for the conservation of 13 species which are rare and/or have limited geographical ranges in Malawi. It is suggested that well-managed farms which contain remnants of natural vegetation can play a significant role in the conservation of mammals, and other vertebrates, in Central Africa.     

Influence of Patch Factors and Connectivity on the Avifauna of Fragmented Polylepis Forest in the Ecuadorian Andes

Human‐induced alteration of habitat is a major threat to biodiversity worldwide, especially in areas of high biological diversity and endemism. Polylepis (Rosaceae) forest, a unique forest habitat in the high Andes of South America, presently occurs as small and isolated patches in grassland dominated landscapes. We examine how the avian community is likely influenced by patch characteristics (i.e., area, plant species composition) and connectivity in a landscape composed of patches of Polylepis forest surrounded by páramo grasslands in Cajas National Park in the Andes of southern Ecuador. We used generalized linear mixed models and an information‐theoretic approach to identify the most important variables probably influencing birds inhabiting 26 forest patches. Our results indicated that species richness was associated with area of a patch and floristic composition, particularly the presence of Gynoxys (Asteraceae). However, connectivity of patches probably influenced the abundance of forest and generalists species. Elsewhere, it has been proposed that effective management plans for birds using Polylepis should promote the conservation of mature Polylepis patches. Our results not only suggest this but also show that there are additional factors, such as the presence of Gynoxys plants, which will probably play a role in conservation of birds. More generally, these findings show that while easily measured attributes of the patch and landscape may provide some insights into what influences patch use by birds, knowledge of other factors, such as plant species composition, is essential for better understanding the distribution of birds in fragmented landscapes.     

西沙群岛主要岛屿鸟类和小型兽类群落调查研究

对海岛动物资源的本底调查和研究,可为更好地保护海洋和海岛生态系统提供重要的依据。2018年4月-2019年12月,利用样线法、铗夜法等对西沙群岛东岛、永兴岛等岛屿的鸟类、小型兽类资源进行了4次调查,结合历史记录数据对其物种组成和多样性变化进行了分析。调查共记录到小型兽类3种,臭鼩（Suncus murinus）见于林灌丛,褐家鼠（Rattus norvegicus）和黄胸鼠（R.flavipectus）见于房舍区;共记录到鸟类13目26科65种,其中国家Ⅱ级重点保护动物4种,新记录到鸟类29种;广布型鸟类34种,古北界鸟类20种,东洋界鸟类11种;冬候鸟28种,留鸟23种,旅鸟6种,夏候鸟5种,迷鸟3种;东岛鸟类物种数高于永兴岛,但多样性和均匀度均较低;雨季物种丰富度、多样性和均匀度均高于旱季;东岛为国家Ⅱ级重点保护动物红脚鲣鸟（Sula sula）中国唯一的繁殖地,应加强保护。与1974年和2005年报道的数据对比,本次调查记录的鸟类物种丰富度最高,留鸟物种数最多。结果反映西沙群岛小型兽类种类较少,主要分布在房舍区及其附近的林灌从;暗示小型兽类带入、扩散等可能与人为活动相关,其生态效应予以重视和长期监测。西沙群岛鸟类物种有丰富度较高、候鸟占比高、季节和年份间差异明显、留鸟物种数有所增加、为红脚鲣鸟唯一的繁殖地等特点。西沙群岛生态系统的完整性,对候鸟和留鸟的保护,尤其是红脚鲣鸟的保护十分重要,应予以重视。     

Hiding in the dark: Local ecological knowledge about slow loris in Sarawak sheds light on relationships between human populations and wild animals

Local ecological knowledge (LEK) increases understanding of certain species and the threats they face, especially little-studied taxa for which data on distribution and conservation are often lacking. We conducted 111 semi-structured interviews in Sarawak, Malaysia, to collect local knowledge about the behavior and distribution of the Philippine slow loris (Nycticebus menagensis) from two ethnic groups, the Iban and the Penan. Our study revealed that male Penan respondents, generally hunters, who frequently go into the forest were better at identifying animals from pictures. Overall, the Penan have a more detailed knowledge of slow loris behaviors, habitat, and distribution than the Iban. The two ethnic groups have different attitudes towards slow loris as the Penan hunt, eat, or keep them as pets while the Iban consider them sacred and signifiers of good luck. We advocate the use of LEK for providing complementary information to scientific methods in the study of cryptic animals.     

The final frontier: early-stage genetic introgression and hybrid habitat use in the northwestern extent of the Golden-winged Warbler breeding range

Anthropogenic changes to the landscape and climate have resulted in secondary contact between previously allopatric species. This can result in genetic introgression and reverse speciation when closely related species are able to hybridize. The Golden-winged Warbler has declined or been extirpated across much of its range where it has come into secondary contact with the Blue-winged Warbler. Genetic screening previously showed that introgression had occurred range-wide with the exception of Manitoba, Canada. Our goal was to reassess the genetic status of the Golden-winged Warbler population in Manitoba and to examine the demographics and habitat use of phenotypic and genetic hybrids. From 2011 to 2014, we sampled and screened mtDNA from 205 Golden-winged Warblers and hybrids in southeast Manitoba. In 2012, we monitored all Golden-winged Warbler territories within those sites and measured territory- and landscape-level habitat variables. Of the birds screened, 195 had a phenotype that matched their mtDNA type, two were phenotypic hybrids, and eight showed a phenotypic-mtDNA mismatch (cryptic hybrids). We found no difference in the habitat used by Golden-winged Warblers compared with hybrids at either scale. The low proportion of hybrids found in Manitoba and the lack of a distinguishable difference in habitat use by Golden-winged Warblers and hybrids indicates that the exclusion of hybrid birds from Golden-winged Warbler habitat is unlikely to be a successful conservation strategy. The best way to manage for Golden-winged Warblers is to slow the habitat loss and fragmentation that continues within Manitoba and to actively manage early-successional deciduous forest using tools such as fire and logging.     

Unveiling the environmental drivers of intraspecific body size variation in terrestrial vertebrates

Aim

Whether intraspecific spatial patterns in body size are generalizable across species remains contentious, as well as the mechanisms underlying these patterns. Here we test several hypotheses explaining within-species body size variation in terrestrial vertebrates including the heat balance, seasonality, resource availability and water conservation hypotheses for ectotherms, and the heat conservation, heat dissipation, starvation resistance and resource availability hypotheses for endotherms.

Location

Global.

Time period

1970–2016.

Major taxa studied

Amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.

Methods

We collected 235,905 body size records for 2,229 species (amphibians = 36; reptiles = 81; birds = 1,545; mammals = 567) and performed a phylogenetic meta-analysis of intraspecific correlations between body size and environmental variables. We further tested whether correlations differ between migratory and non-migratory bird and mammal species, and between thermoregulating and thermoconforming ectotherms.

Results

For bird species, smaller intraspecific body size was associated with higher mean and maximum temperatures and lower resource seasonality. Size–environment relationships followed a similar pattern in resident and migratory birds, but the effect of resource availability on body size was slightly positive only for non-migratory birds. For mammals, we found that intraspecific body size was smaller with lower resource availability and seasonality, with this pattern being more evident in sedentary than migratory species. No clear size–environment relationships were found for reptiles and amphibians.

Main conclusions

Within-species body size variation across endotherms is explained by disparate underlying mechanisms for birds and mammals. Heat conservation (Bergmann's rule) and heat dissipation are the dominant processes explaining biogeographic intraspecific body size variation in birds, whereas in mammals, body size clines are mostly explained by the starvation resistance and resource availability hypotheses. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms behind species adaptations to the environment across their geographic distributions.     

Predator–Primate Distribution,Activity, and Co-occurrence in Relation to Habitat and Human Activity Across Fragmented and Contiguous Forests in Northeastern Madagascar

Predator–primate interactions are understudied, yet predators have been shown to influence primate behavior, population dynamics, and spatial distribution. An understanding of these interactions is important for the successful management and conservation of these species. Novel approaches are needed to understand better the spatial relationships between predators and primates across changing landscapes. We combined photographic surveys of predators and humans with line-transect sampling of lemurs across contiguous and fragmented forests in Madagascar to 1) compare relative activity; 2) estimate probability of occupancy and detection; 3) estimate predator–primate and local people–primate co-occurrence; and 4) assess variables influencing these parameters across contiguous and fragmented forests. In fragmented (compared to contiguous) forest sites endemic predator and lemur activity were lower whereas introduced predator and local people activity were higher. Our two-species interaction occupancy models revealed a higher number of interactions among species across contiguous forest where predator and lemur occupancy were highest. Mouse lemurs show evidence of “avoidance” (SIF < 1.0) with all predator species (endemic and introduced) in contiguous forest whereas white-fronted brown lemurs show “attraction” (SIF > 1.0) with feral cats and local people in contiguous forest. Feral cats demonstrated the highest number of interactions with lemurs, despite their distribution being limited to only contiguous forest. Distance to forest edge and distance to nearby villages were important in predicting predator occupancy and detection. These results highlight the growing threat to endemic predators and lemurs as habitat loss and fragmentation increase throughout Madagascar. We demonstrate the effectiveness of a novel combination of techniques to investigate how predator species impact primate species across a gradient of forest fragmentation.     

An overview of biodiversity and conservation status of steppes of the Anatolian Biogeographical Region

The Anatolian Biogeographical Region is unique in the Palearctic realm, with high plant and butterfly species richness and populations of globally threatened birds, mammals and herptiles (amphibians and reptiles). It is a place of diverse land-use practices, dating back to the earliest farming practices in the world. Among 10,930 species of vascular plants, birds, butterflies, mammals and herptiles distributed in Turkey, we identified 1130 living predominantly in steppic environments and being classified either as threatened, near-threatened or data deficient at the national level, if not globally. A total of 28 effective protected areas were present in the region, covering 1.5 % of the 391,597 km² land area. Only 16.2 % of the threatened and near-threatened species (n = 809) were distributed within the protected area network, ranging from 94.1 % for birds to as low as 12.9 % for vascular plants. The total area of steppe and steppe forest vegetation has been reduced by at least 44 % of its former extent due to diverse habitat destructive activities. The most significant threats arise from unsustainable agricultural activities including overgrazing, conversion to croplands and afforestation. To maintain steppe diversity, we propose a “to-do list”, including mainstreaming biodiversity, effective implementation of Turkey’s Rangeland Act, conducting effective environmental impact assessments, establishing an effective site network for steppe biodiversity conservation and filling gaps in scientific knowledge.