外泌体在肿瘤免疫逃逸和耐受中的作用

肿瘤细胞能够通过多种机制抵御免疫防御或药物的抗肿瘤作用.近年研究发现,外泌体能够直接介导癌症的进展和远端转移灶的形成.更为重要的是,在肿瘤免疫微环境中,肿瘤来源外泌体不仅能够抑制树突状细胞(DC)、巨噬细胞、T细胞、NK细胞等免疫细胞功能,还能促进骨髓来源的抑制性细胞(MDSC)、调节性T细胞(Treg)等的免疫抑制功能,进而降低抗肿瘤免疫应答过程,帮助肿瘤细胞逃避机体免疫细胞识别.本文将概述肿瘤外泌体及其携带的关键介质分子在介导肿瘤免疫逃逸和耐受过程中扮演的角色,并对这一研究领域的最新进展作一综述.     

肿瘤细胞外泌体与窖蛋白-1

外泌体作为细胞间信息交流的重要结构,不仅介导正常生理过程的调节(如细胞间的交流),还参与许多疾病的病理过程。多种细胞在正常及病理状态下均可分泌外泌体。已经发现,不同细胞来源的外泌体内含有的蛋白或miRNA等分子的作用不同,可以作为肿瘤患者预后的标志物,但详细机制并不十分清楚。窖蛋白-1作为胞膜窖的标志性蛋白,可作为肿瘤调控因子行使多种细胞功能。近年来发现,多种肿瘤的外泌体有窖蛋白-1的表达,且窖蛋白-1作为重要的功能蛋白调控外泌体的内化过程。我们简要综述了肿瘤细胞外泌体与窖蛋白-1之间的联系,以期为肿瘤的早期诊断和治疗提供新思路。     

外泌体糖基化在疾病诊断及治疗中的应用

外泌体由脂质双分子层构成,内含多种生物分子,如蛋白质、核酸、糖类等,具有调节生命活动的作用,其蛋白质组分也可反映分泌细胞状态。糖基化是一种常见的蛋白质翻译后修饰形式,糖基化蛋白对于维持细胞稳态、细胞间互作等生理功能具有重要作用。近年来,有关于外泌体的研究大多关注外泌体核酸成分如miRNA、mRNA、lncRNA等的功能。外泌体膜蛋白也含有丰富的糖链,且具有重要的病理生理意义。本文着重介绍外泌体糖基化的结构、研究方法、在肿瘤等疾病中的分子功能以及在疾病诊断、治疗中的临床应用和前景。外泌体糖基化研究将随着技术的革新不断深入,有望成为多种疾病临床诊疗的重要手段。     

外泌体调控肿瘤侵袭转移的研究进展

外泌体(exosomes)是一种由多种类型细胞分泌的磷脂双层膜囊泡，直径在30～100 nm之间。它们存在于几乎所有体液中，如血液、脑脊液、尿液、胆汁、乳汁等。外泌体能够携带多种物质，介导细胞间通讯并反映来源细胞的状态。外泌体在肿瘤进展中发挥了重要的作用，它们可以通过促进肿瘤细胞上皮-间质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition,EMT)、形成转移前微环境(pre-metastatic niche,PMN)以及促进促炎症和免疫抑制微环境的形成，促进肿瘤的侵袭转移。本文综述了外泌体调控肿瘤侵袭转移的作用机制，包括外泌体介导的细胞间信号传递、外泌体调控肿瘤细胞增殖、迁移和侵袭等方面。此外，本文还探讨了外泌体在肿瘤微环境中的作用及其与免疫逃逸的关系，期望为深入研究外泌体对肿瘤的调控作用提供新的思路、为肿瘤治疗提供新的靶点和策略。     

表面增强拉曼散射技术无标记检测乳腺癌细胞来源外泌体

外泌体含有释放细胞的特异性物质,反映了释放细胞的组成成分,成为液体活检的重要物质。为了鉴别正常乳腺上皮细胞和乳腺癌细胞来源的外泌体,本研究采用表面增强拉曼(SERS)技术检测乳腺癌细胞MCF-7和人正常乳腺上皮细胞MCF-10A来源的外泌体,并且对比两种细胞外泌体的SERS光谱,筛选出相应的特征拉曼光谱。结果发现在800~1800 cm-1区域内,相对MCF-10A细胞,MCF-7来源的外泌体中归属于核酸的拉曼峰相对强度明显增高,且部分脂类峰强有所降低或部分特征峰消失,同时发现MCF-7还表现出其自己独特的拉曼谱型。此结果表明SERS技术可高灵敏度检测不同细胞来源的外泌体细微分子变化,可区分肿瘤细胞来源的外泌体与正常细胞来源的外泌体。SERS技术可作为癌症的早期检测和诊断的一种快速、无标记和无损的方法。     

外泌体源性微小RNA在肝细胞癌及其早期诊断中的作用

肝细胞癌(hepatocellular carcinoma,HCC)是全球第六大最常见的恶性肿瘤。外泌体中微小RNA(microRNAs,miRNAs)可通过在细胞间传递交流来参与调控血管生成、上皮-间充质转化和介导免疫微环境等多种通路途径,从而促进HCC细胞的生长增殖和迁移侵袭,以及诱导肿瘤细胞耐药。此外,外泌体源性miRNAs展现了显著的组织特异性和作为新颖生物标志物的巨大潜力,已成为当前HCC早期液体活检研究的热门领域。本文综述了外泌体源性miRNAs在HCC发生发展和耐药中的作用机制,揭示了其潜在的系统性分子调控网络,归纳了其在HCC早期诊断中的应用价值。     

外泌体介导的靶向基因运送及在心血管疾病中的应用

外泌体是体内几乎所有细胞分泌的具有双层脂质膜结构的纳米级小囊泡。外泌体大小均匀,平均直径为40～120 nm,存在于所有体液中。外泌体曾一度被认为是细胞成熟过程中清除废弃细胞器的‘垃圾袋’。但近年研究显示：外泌体含有丰富的来源于‘供体细胞’的信号分子,如蛋白质、DNA、mRNA、miRNA以及lncRNA等。当外泌体与‘受体细胞’融合时,这些信号分子便被运送到‘受体细胞’,从而实现细胞 细胞之间的通讯,影响‘受体细胞’的生理病理过程。虽然外泌体的研究目前主要集中在癌症等疾病的预防、诊断与治疗中,但是越来越多的研究显示,外泌体在心血管系统的生理及病理过程中同样发挥着重要作用。本文将对外泌体的起源、分离与纯化方法及外泌体介导的‘细胞 细胞’之间的通讯机制进行综述,并重点论述利用基因工程技术对外泌体进行靶向运输的方法及靶向外泌体运送在心血管疾病治疗中的应用。     

外泌体在免疫调控及肿瘤发生中的功能

已知细胞间的信息交流不仅可以通过直接接触,或释放信号分子等方式,同时还存在另一种细胞通讯方式即释放外泌体。外泌体是由细胞分泌,直径为30～100 nm的囊泡结构。外泌体含有蛋白质、脂质、mRNAs和miRNAs等成分,并且能够靶向运输到其他细胞或组织中,从而在细胞间的信息交流、物质传递方面发挥重要作用。本文对外泌体的基本特征、形成过程、功能以及在疾病诊断与治疗中的应用等方面进行简要综述,重点介绍外泌体在免疫调控和肿瘤发生方面的功能。外泌体作为一种广泛存在的亚细胞成分,虽然体积小,组成成分简单,然而,其复杂功能具有重要的研究价值。对外泌体功能的深入了解将为肿瘤等疾病的预防和治疗提供更多的诊断标志物、疫苗以及治疗思路与手段。     

骨外器官来源外泌体对骨骼调控作用的研究进展

外泌体是细胞分泌外囊泡中研究最为广泛的三个主要亚群之一,在介导细胞间信息交流过程中发挥着至关重要的作用,其跨器官调控和远距离调控的特点也是外泌体相关研究备受瞩目的原因之一。近年来,外泌体调节骨稳态以及介导肿瘤细胞骨转移的相关研究逐渐增多,然而骨外来源外泌体对骨骼细胞的调控作用虽有较多研究,但对其调控活动网络的梳理尚不清晰。该文通过总结骨外来源外泌体对骨骼的调控作用,梳理和完善骨外器官和组织分泌的外泌体对骨骼的调控活动网络,为探究不同来源外泌体改善骨微环境,抵抗肿瘤细胞骨转移提供理论依据。     

外泌体及其抗肿瘤作用机制

外泌体是由细胞分泌到胞外的囊泡状小体,体内多种细胞可以分泌外泌体,来源于树突状细胞（DC）和肿瘤细胞的外泌体表面表达MHC分子和抗原肽,体内外实验证明其具有抗肿瘤的作用,因此外泌体作为抗肿瘤疫苗被广泛研究。该文介绍外泌体的发现、蛋白质组成、体内抗肿瘤的机制,以及DC与肿瘤来源的外泌体的基础及临床研究。     

Exosomes as Tools to Suppress Primary Brain Tumor

Exosomes are small microvesicles released by cells that efficiently transfer their molecular cargo to other cells, including tumor. Exosomes may pass the blood–brain barrier and have been demonstrated to deliver RNAs contained within to brain. As they are non-viable, the risk profile of exosomes is thought to be less than that of cellular therapies. Exosomes can be manufactured at scale in culture, and exosomes can be engineered to incorporate therapeutic miRNAs, siRNAs, or chemotherapeutic molecules. As natural biological delivery vehicles, interest in the use of exosomes as therapeutic delivery agents is growing. We previously demonstrated a novel treatment whereby mesenchymal stromal cells were employed to package tumor-suppressing miR-146b into exosomes, which were then used to reduce malignant glioma growth in rat. The use of exosomes to raise the immune system against tumor is also drawing interest. Exosomes from dendritic cells which are antigen-presenting, and have been used for treatment of brain tumor may be divided into three categories: (1) exosomes for immunomodulation-based therapy, (2) exosomes as delivery vehicles for anti-tumor nucleotides, and (3) exosomes as drug delivery vehicles. Here, we will provide an overview of these three applications of exosomes to treat brain tumor, and examine their prospects on the long road to clinical use.     

外体（exosome）在肿瘤免疫治疗中的应用

外体（exosome）是由细胞分泌至细胞外的膜性小囊泡。研究发现,来源于树突状细胞和来源于肿瘤细胞的外体富集MHCⅠ/Ⅱ类分子、协同刺激分子、热激蛋白70和90等多种活性分子和肿瘤抗原,在体内外免疫调节中起关键作用,以外体为基础的肿瘤免疫治疗已成为热点。我们简要介绍外体的特征、分离制备和临床应用研究。     

Ionizing Radiation and Glioblastoma Exosomes: Implications in Tumor Biology and Cell Migration

Exosomes are nanometer-sized lipid vesicles released ubiquitously by cells, which have been shown to have a normal physiological role, as well as influence the tumor microenvironment and aid metastasis. Recent studies highlight the ability of exosomes to convey tumor-suppressive and oncogenic mRNAs, microRNAs, and proteins to a receiving cell, subsequently activating downstream signaling pathways and influencing cellular phenotype. Here, we show that radiation increases the abundance of exosomes released by glioblastoma cells and normal astrocytes. Exosomes derived from irradiated cells enhanced the migration of recipient cells, and their molecular profiling revealed an abundance of molecules related to signaling pathways important for cell migration. In particular, connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) mRNA and insulin-like growth factor binding protein 2 (IGFBP2) protein levels were elevated, and coculture of nonirradiated cells with exosomes isolated from irradiated cells increased CTGF protein expression in the recipient cells. Additionally, these exosomes enhanced the activation of neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor type 1 (TrkA), focal adhesion kinase, Paxillin, and proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Src (Src) in recipient cells, molecules involved in cell migration. Collectively, our data suggest that radiation influences exosome abundance, specifically alters their molecular composition, and on uptake, promotes a migratory phenotype.     

外泌体靶向递药在肿瘤治疗中的进展

外泌体是由细胞分泌、粒径为30~150 nm的纳米囊泡。外泌体具有优越的生物相容性、良好的载药功能以及便于修饰的膜表面,是一种具有潜力的药物递送载体。在肿瘤治疗研究中,可利用具有靶向识别功能的外泌体来降低脱靶效应,减少不良反应,达到增强治疗效果的目的。归纳了用不同修饰方法增强外泌体靶向性的研究进展,总结了近五年来利用外泌体作为特异性药物递送载体靶向治疗肿瘤的相关研究,阐述了外泌体作为新型药物递送载体的优势与不足,为设计具有靶向识别功能的外泌体提供了可行的方向与策略。     

Tumor cell-derived exosomes: A message in a bottle

Exosomes constitute the newest mode of intercellular communication, transmitting information between cells. This exchange of molecular information is facilitated by their unique composition which is enriched with enzymes, structural proteins, adhesion molecules, lipid rafts and RNAs. Following the discovery that cancer cells secrete excessive amounts of exosomes compared to normal cells, it became evident that i) these vesicles can be used as diagnostic markers; ii) their active secretion has functional implications, albeit unknown whether they are tumor promoting or suppressing. Notably, the interplay via the exchange of exosomes between cancer cells and between cancer cells and the tumor stroma may promote the transfer of oncogenes (e.g. β-catenin, CEA, HER2, Melan-A/Mart-1 and LMP-1) and onco-microRNAs (e.g. let7, miR1, miR15, miR16 and miR375) from one cell to another, leading to the reprogramming of the recipient cells. The molecular composition and functional role of tumor cell-derived exosomes in tumorigenesis, metastasis and response to therapy are slowly decrypted and the latest findings as well as potential therapeutic strategies are discussed in this review.     

Tumor-derived exosomes: Implication in angiogenesis and antiangiogenesis cancer therapy

Tumor cells utilize different strategies to communicate with neighboring tissues for facilitating tumor progression and invasion, one of these strategies has been shown to be the release of exosomes. Exosomes are small nanovesicles secreted by all kind of cells in the body, especially cancer cells, and mediate cell to cell communications. Exosomes play an important role in cancer invasiveness by harboring various cargoes that could accelerate angiogenesis. Here first, we will present an overview of exosomes, their biology, and their function in the body. Then, we will focus on exosomes derived from tumor cells as tumor angiogenesis mediators with a particular emphasis on the underlying mechanisms in various cancer origins. Also, exosomes derived from stem cells and tumor-associated macrophages will be discussed in this regard. Finally, we will discuss the novel therapeutic strategies of exosomes as drug delivery vehicles against angiogenesis.     

Application of a Persistent Heparin Treatment Inhibits the Malignant Potential of Oral Squamous Carcinoma Cells Induced by Tumor Cell-Derived Exosomes

Exosomes are 30–100 nm-sized membranous vesicles, secreted from a variety of cell types into their surrounding extracellular space. Various exosome components including lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are transferred to recipient cells and affect their function and activity. Numerous studies have showed that tumor cell-derived exosomes play important roles in tumor growth and progression. However, the effect of exosomes released from oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) into the tumor microenvironment remains unclear. In the present study, we isolated exosomes from OSCC cells and investigated the influence of OSCC cell-derived exosomes on the tumor cell behavior associated with tumor development. We demonstrated that OSCC cell-derived exosomes were taken up by OSCC cells themselves and significantly promoted proliferation, migration, and invasion through the activation of the PI3K/Akt, MAPK/ERK, and JNK-1/2 pathways in vitro. These effects of OSCC cell-derived exosomes were obviously attenuated by treatment with PI3K, ERK-1/2, and JNK-1/2 pharmacological inhibitors. Furthermore, the growth rate of tumor xenografts implanted into nude mice was promoted by treatment with OSCC cell-derived exosomes. The uptake of exosomes by OSCC cells and subsequent tumor progression was abrogated in the presence of heparin. Taken together, these data suggest that OSCC cell-derived exosomes might be a novel therapeutic target and the use of heparin to inhibit the uptake of OSCC-derived exosomes by OSCC cells may be useful for treatment.     

Immune surveillance properties of human NK cell-derived exosomes

Exosomes are nanovesicles released by normal and tumor cells, which are detectable in cell culture supernatant and human biological fluids, such as plasma. Functions of exosomes released by "normal" cells are not well understood. In fact, several studies have been carried out on exosomes derived from hematopoietic cells, but very little is known about NK cell exosomes, despite the importance of these cells in innate and adaptive immunity. In this paper, we report that resting and activated NK cells, freshly isolated from blood of healthy donors, release exosomes expressing typical protein markers of NK cells and containing killer proteins (i.e., Fas ligand and perforin molecules). These nanovesicles display cytotoxic activity against several tumor cell lines and activated, but not resting, immune cells. We also show that NK-derived exosomes undergo uptake by tumor target cells but not by resting PBMC. Exosomes purified from plasma of healthy donors express NK cell markers, including CD56(+) and perforin, and exert cytotoxic activity against different human tumor target cells and activated immune cells as well. The results of this study propose an important role of NK cell-derived exosomes in immune surveillance and homeostasis. Moreover, this study supports the use of exosomes as an almost perfect example of biomimetic nanovesicles possibly useful in future therapeutic approaches against various diseases, including tumors.     

肿瘤细胞外泌体中融合基因的检测

目的:探究肿瘤细胞分泌的外泌体中是否可以检测到来源于源细胞的融合基因m RNA。方法:培养人非小细胞肺癌NCI-H3122细胞,采用外泌体试剂盒提取细胞上清中的外泌体,并用Western Blot实验验证外泌体是否提取成功。分别提取外泌体以及H3122细胞中的总RNA,将RNA反转录为c DNA,通过PCR反应扩增v1型EML4-ALK融合基因片段,经琼脂糖凝胶电泳确定目的条带后,将两种PCR产物送公司进行基因测序,最后对测序结果进行比对分析。结果:从H3122细胞上清中成功提取了外泌体,并且在外泌体中检测到来源于H3122细胞的m RNA;从H3122细胞外泌体中检测到EML4-ALK融合基因,并发现外泌体中的EML4-ALK融合基因的融合形式为V1,与在H3122细胞中检测到的EML4-ALK融合基因的融合形式完全相同。结论:肿瘤细胞分泌的外泌体中可以检测到肿瘤细胞来源的m RNA,并且外泌体中的m RNA可以反映肿瘤细胞m RNA的基因融合情况等生物学特性。     

Exosomes Derived from Mesenchymal Stem Cells Suppress Angiogenesis by Down-Regulating VEGF Expression in Breast Cancer Cells

Exosomes are small membrane vesicles released by a variety of cell types. Exosomes contain genetic materials, such as mRNAs and microRNAs (miRNAs), implying that they may play a pivotal role in cell-to-cell communication. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which potentially differentiate into multiple cell types, can migrate to the tumor sites and have been reported to exert complex effects on tumor progression. To elucidate the role of MSCs within the tumor microenvironment, previous studies have suggested various mechanisms such as immune modulation and secreted factors of MSCs. However, the paracrine effects of MSC-derived exosomes on the tumor microenvironment remain to be explored. The hypothesis of this study was that MSC-derived exosomes might reprogram tumor behavior by transferring their molecular contents. To test this hypothesis, exosomes from MSCs were isolated and characterized. MSC-derived exosomes exhibited different protein and RNA profiles compared with their donor cells and these vesicles could be internalized by breast cancer cells. The results demonstrated that MSC-derived exosomes significantly down-regulated the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in tumor cells, which lead to inhibition of angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, miR-16, a miRNA known to target VEGF, was enriched in MSC-derived exosomes and it was partially responsible for the anti-angiogenic effect of MSC-derived exosomes. The collective results suggest that MSC-derived exosomes may serve as a significant mediator of cell-to-cell communication within the tumor microenvironment and suppress angiogenesis by transferring anti-angiogenic molecules.