Organic fertilizers alter the composition of pathogens and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in maize roots

Roots of agricultural crops, including maize, are hosts of different microorganisms, many beneficial, like plant growth and health‐promoting arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), as well as pathogens including Pythium, Polymyxa and Microdochium. To improve crop nutrition and health, profound knowledge is required regarding how agricultural practices affect field populations of root‐associated microorganisms. Hence, the objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of crop genotype and organic fertilizers on the plant growth performance of maize and their root‐associated microorganisms. The experiment was conducted as a fully factorial greenhouse pot experiment with maize cultivars (two land races and two hybrids) and organic fertilizers (green manure, cow manure and compost) as the two main factors. Plants were harvested 8 weeks after sowing. In general, the different maize cultivars responded similarly to the applications of the organic fertilizers. Cow manure and compost increased plant growth, whereas green manure had limited effect on plant growth. Root colonization with AMF was reduced by green manure with rape. Infection with the root pathogens Pythium and Polymyxa was reduced by all organic fertilizers, whereas in contrast, infection with Microdochium increased with the majority of the organic fertilizers applied. In conclusion, both maize genotype and organic fertilizers affect the abundance of AMF and root pathogens in maize, which should be considered when developing management strategies of these root‐inhabiting microorganisms.     

Stay‐green: A consequence of the balance between supply and demand for nitrogen during grain filling?

Retention of green leaf area in grain sorghum under post‐anthesis drought, known as stay‐green, is associated with greater biomass production, lodging resistance and yield. The stay‐green phenomenon can be examined at a cell, leaf, or whole plant level. At a cell level, the retention of chloroplast proteins such as LHCP2, OEC33 and Rubisco until late in senescence has been reported in sorghum containing the KS19 source of stay‐green, indicating that photosynthesis may be maintained for longer during senescence in these genotypes. At a leaf level, longevity of photosynthetic apparatus is intimately related to nitrogen (N) status. At a whole plant level, stay‐green can be viewed as a consequence of the balance between N demand by the grain and N supply during grain filling. To examine some of these concepts, nine hybrids varying in the B35 and KS19 sources of stay‐green were grown under a post‐anthesis water deficit. Genotypic variation in delayed onset and reduced rate of leaf senescence were explained by differences in specific leaf nitrogen (SLN) and N uptake during grain filling. Matching N supply from age‐related senescence and N uptake during grain filling with grain N demand found that the shortfall in N supply for grain filling was greater in the senescent than stay‐green hybrids, resulting in more accelerated leaf senescence in the former. We hypothesise that increased N uptake by stay‐green hybrids is a result of greater biomass accumulation during grain filling in response to increased sink demand (higher grain numbers) which, in turn, is the result of increased radiation use efficiency and transpiration efficiency due to higher SLN. Delayed leaf senescence resulting from higher SLN should, in turn, allow more carbon and nitrogen to be allocated to the roots of stay‐green hybrids during grain filling, thereby maintaining a greater capacity to extract N from the soil compared with senescent hybrids.     

Mycotoxins in developing countries: A case study of maize in Nepal

Maize (Zea mays) is an important food crop in the foothills of the Nepal Himalaya Mountains. Surveys have found that maize in Nepal is contaminated withFusarium species, mainlyF. verticillioides andF. proliferatum, which produce fumonisins, andF. graminearum, which produces trichothecenes, mainly nivalenol and 4-deoxynivalenol. Maize from smallholder farms and markets is often contaminated with fumonisins and trichothecenes above 1000 ng/g, a level of concern for human health. These mycotoxins were not eliminated by traditional fermentation for producing maize beer, but Nepalese women were able to detoxify contaminated maize by hand-sorting visibly disease kernels. An integrated approach to reduce mycotoxins risks in maize in Nepal and other developing countries should include plant breeding to produce ear rot resistant cultivars, along with education in mycotoxins risks and in agricultural and grain storage practices to reduce mycotoxin contamination. Presented at the EU-USA Bilateral Workshop on Toxigenic Fungi & Mycotoxins, New Orleans, USA, July 5–7, 2005     

Modern maize hybrids in Northeast China exhibit increased yield potential and resource use efficiency despite adverse climate change

The impact of global changes on food security is of serious concern. Breeding novel crop cultivars adaptable to climate change is one potential solution, but this approach requires an understanding of complex adaptive traits for climate‐change conditions. In this study, plant growth, nitrogen (N) uptake, and yield in relation to climatic resource use efficiency of nine representative maize cultivars released between 1973 and 2000 in China were investigated in a 2‐year field experiment under three N applications. The Hybrid‐Maize model was used to simulate maize yield potential in the period from 1973 to 2011. During the past four decades, the total thermal time (growing degree days) increased whereas the total precipitation and sunshine hours decreased. This climate change led to a reduction of maize potential yield by an average of 12.9% across different hybrids. However, the potential yield of individual hybrids increased by 118.5 kg ha^?1 yr^?1 with increasing year of release. From 1973 to 2000, the use efficiency of sunshine hours, thermal time, and precipitation resources increased by 37%, 40%, and 41%, respectively. The late developed hybrids showed less reduction in yield potential in current climate conditions than old cultivars, indicating some adaptation to new conditions. Since the mid‐1990s, however, the yield impact of climate change exhibited little change, and even a slight worsening for new cultivars. Modern breeding increased ear fertility and grain‐filling rate, and delayed leaf senescence without modification in net photosynthetic rate. The trade‐off associated with delayed leaf senescence was decreased grain N concentration rather than increased plant N uptake, therefore N agronomic efficiency increased simultaneously. It is concluded that modern maize hybrids tolerate the climatic changes mainly by constitutively optimizing plant productivity. Maize breeding programs in the future should pay more attention to cope with the limiting climate factors specifically.     

Hybrid breeding of rice via genomic selection

Hybrid breeding is the main strategy for improving productivity in many crops, especially in rice and maize. Genomic hybrid breeding is a technology that uses whole‐genome markers to predict future hybrids. Predicted superior hybrids are then field evaluated and released as new hybrid cultivars after their superior performances are confirmed. This will increase the opportunity of selecting true superior hybrids with minimum costs. Here, we used genomic best linear unbiased prediction to perform hybrid performance prediction using an existing rice population of 1495 hybrids. Replicated 10‐fold cross‐validations showed that the prediction abilities on ten agronomic traits ranged from 0.35 to 0.92. Using the 1495 rice hybrids as a training sample, we predicted six agronomic traits of 100 hybrids derived from half diallel crosses involving 21 parents that are different from the parents of the hybrids in the training sample. The prediction abilities were relatively high, varying from 0.54 (yield) to 0.92 (grain length). We concluded that the current population of 1495 hybrids can be used to predict hybrids from seemingly unrelated parents. Eventually, we used this training population to predict all potential hybrids of cytoplasm male sterile lines from 3000 rice varieties from the 3K Rice Genome Project. Using a breeding index combining 10 traits, we identified the top and bottom 200 predicted hybrids. SNP genotypes of the training population and parameters estimated from this training population are available for general uses and further validation in genomic hybrid prediction of all potential hybrids generated from all varieties of rice.     

Effects of salt stress and rhizobial inoculation on growth and nitrogen fixation of three peanut cultivars

Increasing soil salinity represents a major constraint for agriculture in arid and semi‐arid lands, where mineral nitrogen (N) deficiency is also a frequent characteristic of soils. Biological N fixation by legumes may constitute a sustainable alternative to chemical fertilisation in salinity‐affected areas, provided that adapted cultivars and inoculants are available. Here, the performance of three peanut cultivars nodulated with two different rhizobial strains that differ in their salt tolerance was evaluated under moderately saline water irrigation and compared with that of N‐fertilised plants. Shoot weight was used as an indicator of yield. Under non‐saline conditions, higher yields were obtained using N fertilisation rather than inoculation for all the varieties tested. However, under salt stress, the yield of inoculated plants became comparable to that of N‐fertilised plants, with minor differences depending on the peanut cultivar and rhizobial strain. Our results indicate that N fixation might represent an economical, competitive and environmentally friendly choice with respect to mineral N fertilisation for peanut cultivation under moderate saline conditions.     

不同施肥条件下冷、暖型小麦旗叶光合生理特性的研究

以2类4个小麦品种为试验材料,通过田间小区试验,比较了灌浆结实期冷、暖型小麦在不施肥(CK)、单施磷肥(P)、单施氮肥(N)和氮磷配施(NP)等4种施肥条件下旗叶的光合生理特性。结果表明,不同施肥条件下,冷型小麦的旗叶叶面积、叶绿素含量、可溶性蛋白质含量及净光合速率均高于暖型小麦。其中,在不施肥和单施磷肥条件下,两类小麦之间各项生理指标的差异均达显著或极显著水平;在施用氮肥(单施氮肥和氮磷配施)条件下,两类小麦之间的差异有所减小,但冷型小麦仍然高于暖型小麦。冷型小麦旗叶优良的光合生理特性具有不随施肥条件的改变而发生根本性变化的特点,对土壤肥力状况有较强的适应性;而暖型小麦对土壤氮素营养要求较高。     

Early changes of gene activity in developing seedlings of Arabidopsis hybrids relative to parents may contribute to hybrid vigour

Hybrid vigour (heterosis) has been used for decades in crop industries, especially in the production of maize and rice. Hybrid varieties usually exceed their parents in plant biomass and seed yield. But the molecular basis of hybrid vigour is not fully understood. In this project, we studied heterosis at early stages of seedling development in Arabidopsis hybrids derived from crossing Ler and C24 accessions. We found that early heterosis is associated with non‐additive gene expression that resulted from earlier changes in gene expression in the hybrids relative to the parents. The non‐additively expressed genes are involved in metabolic pathways, including photosynthesis, critical for plant growth. The early increased expression levels of genes involved in energy production in hybrids is associated with heterosis in the young seedlings that could be essential for biomass heterosis at later developmental stages of the plant.     

食品常见真菌毒素的危害及其防止措施

真菌毒素是一类由真菌产生的普遍存在的化合物。危害人类健康的真菌毒素主要源于曲霉Aspergillus、青霉Penicil-lium、麦角菌属Claviceps和镰刀菌Fusarium等产生的次生代谢物。从全球范围来看,粮食安全问题经常是由谷物、坚果、水果和绿色咖啡豆上的真菌毒素造成的。其中,玉米和花生仁中的黄曲霉素经常超过安全阈值。在以这些食物作为主食的地处温暖和潮湿气候国家的消费者特别容易食用到黄曲霉素污染的食物。而真菌毒素往往会引起人类和动物急性中毒、慢性中毒和致癌。其不可避免地、广泛地、持续地影响着全球人类的健康。目前的防止措施包括选用抗真菌植物、采用适当方法贮藏食物以及食用绿色蔬菜等来预防癌症等。本文阐述了食品中常见真菌毒素的污染情况及其毒性,并对常用防止措施进行了综述,以期为食品真菌毒素防控工作提供参考。     

Long‐term balanced fertilization increases the soil microbial functional diversity in a phosphorus‐limited paddy soil

The influence of long‐term chemical fertilization on soil microbial communities has been one of the frontier topics of agricultural and environmental sciences and is critical for linking soil microbial flora with soil functions. In this study, 16S rRNA gene pyrosequencing and a functional gene array, geochip 4.0, were used to investigate the shifts in microbial composition and functional gene structure in paddy soils with different fertilization treatments over a 22‐year period. These included a control without fertilizers; chemical nitrogen fertilizer (N); N and phosphate (NP); N and potassium (NK); and N, P and K (NPK). Based on 16S rRNA gene data, both species evenness and key genera were affected by P fertilization. Functional gene array‐based analysis revealed that long‐term fertilization significantly changed the overall microbial functional structures. Chemical fertilization significantly increased the diversity and abundance of most genes involved in C, N, P and S cycling, especially for the treatments NK and NPK. Significant correlations were found among functional gene structure and abundance, related soil enzymatic activities and rice yield, suggesting that a fertilizer‐induced shift in the microbial community may accelerate the nutrient turnover in soil, which in turn influenced rice growth. The effect of N fertilization on soil microbial functional genes was mitigated by the addition of P fertilizer in this P‐limited paddy soil, suggesting that balanced chemical fertilization is beneficial to the soil microbial community and its functions.     

The Differential Reaction of Rice Hybrids to Tungro Virus by Phenotyping and PCR Analysis

Twenty popular rice hybrids were used to screen for rice tungro virus (RTV) disease reaction. Virulent green leafhoppers (GLH) were used as vector to introduce RTV to the rice hybrids. Virus symptoms scores were recorded at 14, 21, 34, 41 and 59 days postinoculation (DPI), which suggested that virus symptoms are greatly influenced by growth stage of plants. To confirm the presence of virus, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)‐based detection of Rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV) was carried out at 7, 14, 21 and 59 DPI using virus genome‐specific primers. Virus presence was observed in all the rice hybrids and check varieties, particularly at later stages of infection. This study shows that phenotyping for tungro virus resistance in rice hybrids at 21 DPI gives most reliable results based on both virus symptoms and presence of virus. Further, to assess the relative difference in population of RTBV, quantitative PCR was performed in all the genotypes at 21 DPI. Yield data were also recorded from control and virus‐infected plants to estimate yield loss percentage due to tungro disease. This study is important to understand the response of rice hybrids to tungro virus disease. Results obtained in this study emphasize that molecular detection of virus is very important to screen the rice plants accurately for tungro disease reaction.     

控释尿素和普通尿素配比对不同氮效率玉米叶片衰老特性和土壤酶活性的影响

控释尿素和普通尿素配比施用可以同步玉米氮素需求,延缓后期衰老,增加产量。本试验以黄淮海区域两种氮效率玉米作为对象,研究控释尿素和普通尿素不同配比对其叶片衰老特性、土壤酶活性和土壤无机氮的影响。试验选取黄淮海主栽玉米品种豫禾988（氮低效）和郑单958（氮高效）作为试验材料,设置6个施氮处理（CK、N180U、N180C1、N180C2、N180C、N300U）,其中CK为不施氮处理,180、300代表施氮水平分别为180 kg/hm²和300 kg/hm²,U代表全尿素处理（基肥：追肥=2：3）,C1、C2分别代表控释氮：尿素氮为1：2和2：1（基肥一次施用）,C代表全控释尿素处理（基肥一次施用）。2018-2019年结果表明：与CK相比,豫禾988在N180C1和郑单958在N180C2处理下,能够在玉米生育后期显著提高穗位叶超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）和过氧化物酶（POD）活性,降低膜脂过氧化物（MDA）含量,同时也增加了土壤无机氮含量、脲酶和蔗糖酶活性。综上所述,针对不同氮效率玉米品种,通过控释尿素和尿素合理配施,利用速效氮和控释氮的释放来延缓玉米功能叶片衰老,延长功能期,提高生育后期土壤无机氮含量和酶活性,共同促进玉米生长,增加玉米产量,其中豫禾988和郑单958分别在N180C1和N180C2处理下效果最佳。     

长期施肥下黄壤旱地玉米产量及肥料利用率的变化特征

选取贵州黄壤长期定位监测点中对照（CK, 不施肥）、单施全量有机肥（M, 30555 kg·hm^-2）、有机肥与化肥配施（NPKM,年施N 165 kg·hm^-2、P₂O₅ 82.5 kg·hm^-2、K₂O 82.5 kg·hm^-2、有机肥30555 kg·hm^-2）和氮磷钾化肥配施（NPK,年施N 165 kg·hm^-2、P₂O₅ 82.5 kg·hm^-2、K₂O 82.5 kg·hm^-2）4个处理的16年试验数据进行分析,研究了黄壤区长期不同施肥下作物产量及肥料效益的变化趋势,为评价和建立长期施肥模式、促进粮食持续生产提供依据.结果表明：长期施肥条件下玉米产量年际间变化较大,总体呈上升趋势.其中NPKM处理增产效果最好,可增产4075.71 kg·hm^-2,增产率高达139.3%.长期施肥可提高玉米肥料利用率,其中M处理对玉米氮肥和磷肥利用率的提升作用最显著,分别达35.4%和18.8%;而NPK处理在提高玉米钾肥利用率方面作用明显,提高了20%,远高于M处理的87%和NPKM处理的9.2%.可见,长期均衡施肥,尤其是有机肥与化肥配施对提高作物产量和肥料效益具有积极作用.     

The sugar,biomass and biofuel potential of temperate by tropical maize hybrids

The demand for biofuels has created a market for feedstocks to meet future energy requirements. Temperate × tropical maize (Zea mays L.) hybrids, which combine high biomass and fermentable stalk sugars, have yet to be considered as a biomass feedstock. Our objective was to evaluate biological potential, genetic variability and impact of nitrogen (N) on biomass, stalk sugar, and biofuel potential of temperate × tropical maize (TTM) hybrids. Twelve TTM hybrids, two grain and silage hybrids were grown in 2008, followed in 2009 by seven earshoot‐bagged TTM hybrids. In both years, they were grown with and without supplemental N (202 kg ha^?1) in Champaign, IL. Plants were sampled for total and partitioned biomass, and analyzed for concentration and content of sugar. The TTM hybrids were 40% taller, exhibited later reproductive maturity, greater flowering asynchrony, and remained green longer. All hybrids responded to supplemental N by producing more biomass and grain, a lower percent of biomass partitioned to stalk and leaf, whereas TTM also had a decreased concentration of sugar. Total average biomass yields were 24 Mg ha^?1 for both the TTM and grain hybrids. However, TTM partitioned 50% more biomass to the stalk and produced 50% more sugar, and had less than half the grain of the commercial hybrids, indicating grain production and sugar accumulation are inversely related. When grain formation was prevented by earshoot bagging, TTM hybrids produced, without supplemental N fertilizer, an average of 4024 kg ha^?1 of sugar, which was three‐ to four‐fold greater than the non earshoot‐bagged TTM and ear removed hybrid. Calculated estimates for ethanol production, considering the potential from sugar, stover and grain, indicate TTM can yield nearly the amount of ethanol per hectare as modern grain hybrids, but with a decreased requirement for supplemental fertilizer N.     

A single point mutation in Ms44 results in dominant male sterility and improves nitrogen use efficiency in maize

Application of nitrogen fertilizer in the past 50 years has resulted in significant increases in crop yields. However, loss of nitrogen from crop fields has been associated with negative impacts on the environment. Developing maize hybrids with improved nitrogen use efficiency is a cost‐effective strategy for increasing yield sustainably. We report that a dominant male‐sterile mutant Ms44 encodes a lipid transfer protein which is expressed specifically in the tapetum. A single amino acid change from alanine to threonine at the signal peptide cleavage site of the Ms44 protein abolished protein processing and impeded the secretion of protein from tapetal cells into the locule, resulting in dominant male sterility. While the total nitrogen (N) content in plants was not changed, Ms44 male‐sterile plants reduced tassel growth and improved ear growth by partitioning more nitrogen to the ear, resulting in a 9.6% increase in kernel number. Hybrids carrying the Ms44 allele demonstrated a 4%–8.5% yield advantage when N is limiting, 1.7% yield advantage under drought and 0.9% yield advantage under optimal growth conditions relative to the yield of wild type. Furthermore, we have developed an Ms44 maintainer line for fertility restoration, male‐sterile inbred seed increase and hybrid seed production. This study reveals that protein secretion from the tapetum into the locule is critical for pollen development and demonstrates that a reduction in competition between tassel and ear by male sterility improves grain yield under low‐nitrogen conditions in maize.     

Evaluation of adult emergence and larval root injury for Cry3Bb1‐resistant populations of the western corn rootworm

The transgenic maize (Zea mays L.) event MON 88017 produces the Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) toxin Cry3Bb1 to provide protection from western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) larval feeding. In response to reports of reduced performance of Cry3Bb1‐expressing maize at two locations in Illinois, we conducted a two‐year experiment at these sites to characterize suspected resistance, as well as to evaluate root injury and adult emergence. Single‐plant bioassays were performed on larvae from each population that was suspected to be resistant. Results indicate that these populations had reduced mortality on Cry3Bb1‐expressing maize relative to susceptible control populations. No evidence of cross‐resistance between Cry3Bb1 and Cry34/35Ab1 was documented for the Cry3Bb1‐resistant populations. Field studies were conducted that included treatments with commercially available rootworm Bt hybrids and their corresponding non‐Bt near‐isolines. When compared with their near‐isolines, larval root injury and adult emergence were typically reduced for hybrids expressing Cry34/35Ab1 either alone or in a pyramid. In many instances, larval root injury and adult emergence were not significantly different for hybrids expressing mCry3A or Cry3Bb1 alone when compared with their non‐Bt near‐isolines. These findings suggest that Cry34/35Ab1‐expressing Bt maize may represent a valuable option for maize growers where Cry3Bb1 resistance is either confirmed or suspected. Consistent trends in adult size (head capsule width and dry mass) for individuals recovered from emergence cages were not detected during either year of this experiment. Because of the global importance of transgenic crops for managing insect pests, these results suggest that improved decision‐making for insect resistance management is needed to ensure the durability of Bt maize.     

Characterization of diazotrophic bacteria associated with maize: effect of plant genotype, ontogeny and nitrogen-supply

Summary The population size of diazotrophic bacteria naturally associated with the maize rhizosphere can be affected by biotic and environmental factors. In this work we have evaluated the effect of two genotypes of maize, with and without nitrogen fertilization, on the population dynamics and distribution of diazotrophic bacteria associated with maize plants over different plant ontogenic stages. The study was carried out in a field experiment with and without nitrogen fertilization, using two maize cultivars (Santa Helena 8447 and Santa Rosa 3063) previously selected from 32 maize cultivars for the lowest and highest response to nitrogen fertilization, respectively. Microbiological and molecular approaches were used to characterize the diazotrophic bacterial population structure. Bacterial population was assessed by the most probable number using semi-solid N-free media, and by DNA isolation from soil and plant tissue followed by amplification of nifH gene fragments using nested PCR, and by RFLP analysis using the restriction endonucleases TaqI and HaeIII. The dynamics of the diazotrophic bacterial population were affected by the ontogenic stage of the maize plants, but not by the cultivar type. Roots were the preferred site of colonization, independent of cultivar type and growth stage. During the first stage of maize growth, addition of nitrogen fertilizer negatively affected the diazotrophic bacterial population.     

长期施肥条件下黄土高原黑垆土作物产量与土壤碳氮的关系

通过设置在黄土高原黑垆土区的长期定位试验系统,研究了长期施肥条件下作物产量与土壤碳氮的互馈关系.试验设不施肥(CK)、单施氮肥(N)、氮磷配施(NP)、秸秆与氮磷配施(SNP)、施有机肥(M)和有机肥与氮磷配施(MNP)6个处理.结果表明: 与对照相比,长期平衡施用化肥、单施有机肥、化肥与有机肥配合施用和秸秆还田配施化肥显著增加了作物产量及其稳定性, NP、SNP、M、MNP处理玉米和小麦产量分别增加92%、97%、93%、141%和147%、164%、139%、214%.NP处理玉米和小麦年均产量与当地常规施肥作物产量相当且稳定,小麦-玉米轮作体系施肥量为N 90 kg·hm^-2、P₂O₅ 75 kg·hm^-2能够满足作物需要.秸秆还田与隔年施磷相配合的SNP处理与NP处理作物产量相似,且可减少磷肥施用量50%.平衡施用化肥、有机肥、化肥与有机肥配施和秸秆还田配施化肥均可显著增加土壤有机碳含量,而施用化肥对土壤全氮含量影响不明显,综合所有处理,土壤有机碳和全氮含量呈显著正相关.不同处理土壤有机碳固存率在15%～41%.SNP处理土壤有机碳累积投入量增加1 t·hm^-2,土壤有机碳含量增加0.06 g·kg^-1,而CK、N、NP、M和MNP处理的增幅在0.12～0.15 g·kg^-1.玉米和小麦产量都与土壤全氮含量呈显著正相关,玉米产量随土壤有机碳含量的增加而增加,但小麦产量随土壤有机碳含量的增加先快速增加后趋于平稳,拐点出现在6.8 g·kg^-1.长期平衡施用化肥、有机肥、有机肥与化肥配合施用及秸秆还田配施化肥可显著增加黄土高原黑垆土土壤有机碳和全氮含量、作物产量和根茬还田量,根茬还田量的增加又进一步增加了土壤有机碳和全氮含量,形成了相互促进的互馈关系.     

Mycotoxin producing fungi

Mycotoxins are relatively small molecules characterized by a diversity of chemical structure and a diversity of biological activity. They are often genotypically specific for a group of species, but the same compound can also be formed by fungi belonging to different genera. Most of the mycotoxins known have been recognized as metabolic products of Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium species. This review will be focused on aflatoxins, ochratoxins and fumonisins because of their hazard to animal and human health. The production of these mycotoxins have been usually associated with a small number of species but some recent studies have reported the production of these mycotoxins by some other species. These results show that mycotoxin production is broader than is normally thought, so the possibility can not be ruled out that new species may be a new source of unexpected mycotoxins in their natural substrates.