2000年以来有毒蘑菇研究新进展

误食毒蘑菇而中毒一直被认为是一个对人类健康造成威胁的全球性问题,也是我国食物中毒事件中导致死亡的最主要因素。对2000年以来在有毒蘑菇新种类、新毒素与新症状、有毒蘑菇鉴定及毒素检测新方法、有毒蘑菇中毒机理、毒素基因克隆、中毒治疗以及鹅膏肽类毒素治疗肿瘤等领域取得的新进展进行了综述,并对一些热点研究领域做了展望。     

云南蘑菇中毒事件中的毒蘑菇物种多样性

近年来,云南省每年发生超过500起蘑菇中毒事件,造成2 000余人中毒,约30人死亡,成为我国蘑菇中毒危害最为严重的省份。系统研究蘑菇中毒事件中的毒蘑菇多样性,可以为蘑菇中毒精准防控提供科学依据和技术支撑。本研究对云南省2013年以来开展过科学物种鉴定的223起中毒事件进行了系统分析,发现云南省蘑菇中毒一年四季均有发生,主要集中在6-9月份,中毒事件数和中毒人数7月份达到高峰,而6月份死亡人数最多。地区分布分析发现云南省蘑菇中毒事件涉及14个市州,中毒事件数前5位分别为德宏、玉溪、保山、楚雄和普洱,均位于云南中部及以南地区。223起中毒事件中共成功鉴定出47种毒蘑菇,分属6种中毒类型(急性肝损害型、急性肾衰竭型、横纹肌溶解型、胃肠炎型、神经精神型和光敏性皮炎型)。这些毒蘑菇包含发现于中国的新物种16种,以及2019年以来发现的中国新记录种3种。致命鹅膏Amanita exitialis和亚稀褶红菇Russula subnigricans分别造成19人和9人死亡,是云南省最危险的2种剧毒蘑菇。青褶伞Chlorophyllum molybdites、日本红菇R. japonica、光硬皮马勃Scleroderma cepa、近江粉褶菌Entoloma omiense和发光类脐菇Omphalotus olearius位列胃肠炎型中毒的前5位。热带紫褐裸伞Gymnopilus dilepis、毒歧盖伞近似种Inosperma cf. virosum和兰茂牛肝菌Lanmaoa asiatica位列神经精神型中毒的前3位。叶状耳盘菌Cordierites frondosus是目前云南省造成光敏性皮炎型中毒的唯一物种。     

Mushrooms, tumors, and immunity: an update

There is significant interest in the use of mushrooms and/or mushroom extracts as dietary supplements based on theories that they enhance immune function and promote health. To some extent, select mushrooms have been shown to have stimulatory action on immune responsiveness, particularly when studied in vitro. However, despite their widespread use for potential health benefits, there is a surprising paucity of epidemiologic and experimental studies that address the biologic activities of mushrooms after oral administration to animals or humans. There have been a number of studies that have addressed the ability of mushrooms to modulate mononuclear cell activation and the phenotypic expression of cytokines and their cognate receptors. There have also been a number of attempts to determine antitumor activities of mushrooms. Such studies are important because many of the components of mushrooms do potentially have significant biologic activity. All data, however, should be tempered by the possibility that there are toxic levels of metals, including arsenic, lead, cadmium, and mercury as well as the presence of radioactive contamination with 137Cs. In this review, we will present the comparative biology with respect to both immunological and antitumor activities of mushroom extracts and also highlight the need for further evidence-based research.     

Explaining Dioscorides' "double difference": why are some mushrooms poisonous, and do they signal their unprofitability?

The adaptive significance of toxins in mushrooms has received very little consideration, although it is clear that poisons have appeared (and/or disappeared) many times in mushrooms' evolutionary history. One possibility is that poisons have evolved in some mushroom species to deter their consumption by would-be fungivores before spore dispersal. If this is so, then one might expect poisonous mushrooms to signal their unprofitability in some way. In this study, we have conducted the first formal analysis of the ecological and morphological traits associated with edible and poisonous mushrooms in North America and Europe. Poisonous mushrooms do not tend to be more colorful or aggregated than edible mushrooms, but they are more likely to exhibit distinctive odors even when phylogenetic relationships are accounted for. This raises the intriguing possibility that some poisonous species of mushrooms have evolved warning odors (and perhaps tastes) to enhance avoidance learning by fungivores.     

毒蘑菇的组学研究

毒蘑菇似乎是一个永恒的话题：一方面毒蘑菇每年在世界范围内造成相当数量的人中毒甚至死亡事件;另一方面,毒蘑菇的价值也逐渐被认识,应用毒素进行癌症等疾病治疗的研究取得了重要成果。近年来,毒蘑菇的基因组等组学研究迅速升温,极大地促进了这一领域的研究,揭示了一些毒素的生源合成基因及合成机制,几种毒素合成的进化历史也日益清晰。本文总结了近10余年来毒蘑菇研究在基因组、转录组、蛋白组学等方面取得的最新研究进展,归纳了研究的主要方向和动态,并展望了未来的发展趋势。     

中国毒蘑菇名录

根据文献报道和实际考察收录了我国毒蘑菇435种,对拉丁学名和中文名称进行了订正,文献常用的名称作为异名保留,纠正了以往文献中出现的毒蘑菇的拉丁学名,包括拼写错误和鉴定错误,同时列举出毒素成分及中毒类型,并引证了相关参考文献。     

Mushrooms, tumors, and immunity.

Medicinal properties have been attributed to mushrooms for thousands of years. Mushroom extracts are widely sold as nutritional supplements and touted as beneficial for health. Yet, there has not been a critical review attempting to integrate their nutraceutical potential with basic science. Relatively few studies are available on the biologic effects of mushroom consumption, and those have been performed exclusively in murine models. In this paper, we review existing data on the mechanism of whole mushrooms and isolated mushroom compounds, in particular (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans, and the means by which they modulate the immune system and potentially exert tumor-inhibitory effects. We believe that the antitumor mechanisms of several species of whole mushrooms as well as of polysaccharides isolated from Lentinus edodes, Schizophyllum commune, Grifola frondosa, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum are mediated largely by T cells and macrophages. Despite the structural and functional similarities of these glucans, they differ in their effectiveness against specific tumors and in their ability to elicit various cellular responses, particularly cytokine expression and production. Unfortunately, our data base on the involvement of these important mediators is still rather limited, as are studies concerning the molecular mechanisms of the interactions of glucans with their target cells. As long as it remains unclear what receptors are involved in, and what downstream events are triggered by, the binding of these glucans to their target cells, it will be difficult to make further progress in understanding not only their antitumor mechanisms but also their other biological activities.     

Therapeutic potential of culinary-medicinal mushrooms for the management of neurodegenerative diseases: diversity,metabolite, and mechanism

Mushrooms have long been used not only as food but also for the treatment of various ailments. Although at its infancy, accumulated evidence suggested that culinary-medicinal mushrooms may play an important role in the prevention of many age-associated neurological dysfunctions, including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. Therefore, efforts have been devoted to a search for more mushroom species that may improve memory and cognition functions. Such mushrooms include Hericium erinaceus, Ganoderma lucidum, Sarcodon spp., Antrodia camphorata, Pleurotus giganteus, Lignosus rhinocerotis, Grifola frondosa, and many more. Here, we review over 20 different brain-improving culinary-medicinal mushrooms and at least 80 different bioactive secondary metabolites isolated from them. The mushrooms (either extracts from basidiocarps/mycelia or isolated compounds) reduced beta amyloid-induced neurotoxicity and had anti-acetylcholinesterase, neurite outgrowth stimulation, nerve growth factor (NGF) synthesis, neuroprotective, antioxidant, and anti-(neuro)inflammatory effects. The in vitro and in vivo studies on the molecular mechanisms responsible for the bioactive effects of mushrooms are also discussed. Mushrooms can be considered as useful therapeutic agents in the management and/or treatment of neurodegeneration diseases. However, this review focuses on in vitro evidence and clinical trials with humans are needed.     

European medicinal mushrooms: Do they have potential for modern medicine? – An update

BackgroundThe application of mushrooms for health purposes has a long tradition and is very common in Asian countries. This trend is also becoming increasingly popular in the western hemisphere. However, mushrooms from European tradition are being treated in a restrained manner despite having significant potential as drugs or as sources of pure bioactive substances.Aim: The present review provides an overview of the most important mushrooms used in European ethnomedical traditions and explores their pharmacological potential and the challenges for the development of new drugs from these sources of natural products.Method: Mushroom species were selected based on information in old herbal books and dispensaries, uninterrupted use and scientific literature in the PubMed database up to June 2019.Results: Traditional experiences and modern studies have demonstrated that medical mushrooms used in European traditions have promising distinct pharmacological potential mediated through defined mechanisms (anti-tumour, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative and anti-bacterial). However, the number of modern chemical, biological and pharmacological studies remains relatively small, and some mushroom species have not been studied at all. Unfortunately, no valid clinical studies can be found. Unlike the case with herbal and fungal drugs from traditional Chinese medicine, we are far from comprehensively exploring this potential.Conclusions: Mushrooms from traditional European medicine have the potential to be used in modern medicine. Considerable research, interdisciplinary collaboration, involvement of the pharmaceutical industry, time and money are necessary to explore this potential not only in the form of dietary supplements but also in the form of approved drugs.     

The immunobiology of mushrooms

There has been enormous interest in the biologic activity of mushrooms and innumerable claims have been made that mushrooms have beneficial effects on immune function with subsequent implications for inhibition of tumor growth. The majority of these observations are anecdotal and often lack standardization. However, there remains considerable data on both in vitro and in vivo effects that reflect on the potential of mushroom compounds to influence human immunity. A number of these effects are beneficial but, unfortunately, many responses are still characterized based on phenomenology and there is more speculation than substance. With respect to tumor biology, although many neoplastic lesions are immunogenic, tumor antigens frequently are self antigens and induce tolerance and many patients with cancer exhibit suppressed immune responses, including defective antigen presentation. Therefore, if and when mushroom extracts are effective, they more likely function as a result of improved antigen presentation by dendritic cells than by a direct cytopathic effect. In this review we attempt to place these data in perspective, with a particular focus on dendritic cell populations and the ability of mushroom extracts to modulate immunity. There is, at present, no scientific basis for the use of either mushrooms or mushroom extracts in the treatment of human patients but there is significant potential for rigorous research to understand the potential of mushrooms in human disease and thence to focus on appropriate clinical trials to demonstrate effectiveness and/ or potential toxicity.     

广东已知毒蘑菇种类

广东毒蘑菇种类有112种,分别隶属于子囊菌门(Ascomycota)的1科1属和担子菌门(Basidiomycota)的18科41属。其中种类最多的是鹅膏属(Amanita),有20种,占17.8%;其次为红菇属(Russula),有10种,占8.9%;第3是丝盖伞属(Inocybe),有8种,占7.1%。致命鹅膏(Amanitaexitialis)、铅绿褶菇(Chlorophyllum molybdites)和粗柄白鬼伞(Leucocoprinuscepaestipe)等是近几年在广州引起中毒的常见毒蘑菇种类,其中致命鹅膏的中毒死亡率最高。     

Wenig bekannte Pilzvergiftungen

Recent and still little known fungus poisonings This research paper gives an overview of recent fungus poisonings, their symptoms, and, as far as known, their toxins. Intoxications often are the consequence of the confusion with edible or “medicinal” mushrooms. The toxic species Freckled Dapperling (Lepiota aspera), Angel's Wing (Pleurocybella porrigens), Jack O'Lantern (Omphalaotus olearius) and Clitocybe amoenolens are found in Central Europe. It is little know that a rich morel dish can cause neurologic symptoms. Species from Asia became acquainted, that can provoke most serious intoxications. The “Yunnan Sudden Unexplained Death‐Syndrome” could be explained by the consumption of the “Little white mushroom” (Trogia venenata). The often fatal rhabdomyolysis after the consumption of Russula subnigricans can be traced back to the effect of Cycloprop‐2ene‐carboxylicacid. Particularly fatal is the confusion of the mushroom “Reishi” (Ganoderma lucidum), highly esteemed as the “mushroom of immortality”, with Ganoderma neojaponicum or with Podostroma cornu – damae, the most poisonous mushroom worldwide.     

Distribution and mechanism of α-amanitin tolerance in mycophagous Drosophila (Diptera: Drosophilidae)

Many mycophagous species of Drosophila can tolerate the mushroom poison α-amanitin in wild mushrooms and in artificial diet. We conducted feeding assays with sixteen Drosophila species and α-amanitin in artificial diet to better determine the phylogenetic distribution of this tolerance. For eight tolerant and one related susceptible species, we sequenced the gene encoding the large subunit of RNA Polymerase II, which is the target site of α-amanitin. We found no differences in the gene that could account for differences in susceptibility to the toxin. We also conducted feeding assays in which α-amanitin was combined with chemical inhibitors of cytochrome P450s or glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) in artificial diet to determine if either of these enzyme families is involved in tolerance to α-amanitin. We found that an inhibitor of GSTs did not reduce tolerance to α-amanitin, but that an inhibitor of cytochrome P450s reduced tolerance in several species. It is possible that the same cytochrome P450 activity that produces tolerance of α-amanitin might produce tolerance of other mushroom toxins as well. If so, a general detoxification mechanism based on cytochrome P450s might answer the question of how tolerance to α-amanitin arose in mycophagous Drosophila when this toxin is found in relatively few mushrooms.     

我国食用菌遗传学的发展及展望

食用菌遗传学是食用菌学科体系的重要分支之一,40年来我国食用菌遗传学研究紧密围绕为育种服务、最新分子生物学技术的应用和生产实践中的科学问题的解决等主题开展了众多科学活动。为了促进食用菌遗传学研究的系统性和全面性,本文梳理出9个方面的研究主题,主要包括食用菌种质资源调查和地方品种研究、食用菌农艺性状控制基因定位和分子辅助育种技术研究、食用菌杂交育种的遗传学规律研究、食用菌菌种的遗传稳定性研究和变异风险监控、栽培基质分解利用和储存转运的分子机制、食用菌应对环境因素变化的分子机制、子实体发育的分子调控机制、食用菌次级代谢产物生物合成的分子机制以及食用菌鲜品采摘后代谢生理的分子机制等,目前这些研究主题有些正在成为研究热点,有些在研究的系统性上还有待完善,有些还缺少足够的关注兴趣。希望食用菌遗传学在未来的发展中,能够把一些源头和底层的科学规律弄清楚,形成完整的知识体系和理论体系,为推动食用菌产业高质量发展提供科学基础。     

Agaricus subrufescens: A review

Medicinal mushrooms have currently become a hot issue due to their various therapeutic properties. Of these, Agaricus subrufescens, also known as the “almond mushroom”, has long been valued by many societies (i.e., Brazil, China, France, and USA). Since its discovery in 1893, this mushroom has been cultivated throughout the world, especially in Brazil where several strains of A. subrufescens have been developed and used as health food and alternative medicine. This article presents up-to-date information on this mushroom including its taxonomy and health promoting benefits. Medicinal properties of A. subrufescens are emphasized in several studies which are reviewed here. In addition, safety issues concerning the use of this fungus will be discussed.     

Current findings,future trends,and unsolved problems in studies of medicinal mushrooms

The target of the present review is to draw attention to many critically important unsolved problems in the future development of medicinal mushroom science in the twenty-first century. Special attention is paid to mushroom polysaccharides. Many, if not all, higher Basidiomycetes mushrooms contain biologically active polysaccharides in fruit bodies, cultured mycelium, and cultured broth. The data on mushroom polysaccharides are summarized for approximately 700 species of higher Hetero- and Homobasidiomycetes. The chemical structure of polysaccharides and its connection to antitumor activity, including possible ways of chemical modification, experimental testing and clinical use of antitumor or immunostimulating polysaccharides, and possible mechanisms of their biological action, are discussed. Numerous bioactive polysaccharides or polysaccharide–protein complexes from medicinal mushrooms are described that appear to enhance innate and cell-mediated immune responses and exhibit antitumor activities in animals and humans. Stimulation of host immune defense systems by bioactive polymers from medicinal mushrooms has significant effects on the maturation, differentiation, and proliferation of many kinds of immune cells in the host. Many of these mushroom polymers were reported previously to have immunotherapeutic properties by facilitating growth inhibition and destruction of tumor cells. While the mechanism of their antitumor actions is still not completely understood, stimulation and modulation of key host immune responses by these mushroom polymers appears central. Particularly and most importantly for modern medicine are polysaccharides with antitumor and immunostimulating properties. Several of the mushroom polysaccharide compounds have proceeded through phases I, II, and III clinical trials and are used extensively and successfully in Asia to treat various cancers and other diseases. A total of 126 medicinal functions are thought to be produced by medicinal mushrooms and fungi including antitumor, immunomodulating, antioxidant, radical scavenging, cardiovascular, antihypercholesterolemia, antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic, antifungal, detoxification, hepatoprotective, and antidiabetic effects.     

南迦巴瓦峰地区野生有毒植物资源多样性

为了合理保护利用南峰地区野生有毒植物资源,通过野外实地调查、查阅相关文献书籍及标本,对该地区有毒植物的科属、生活型、毒性、有毒部位以及毒理作用进行分析。结果表明：南峰地区包括野生有毒植物242种,隶属于77科167属,其中优势科是天南星科（Araceae）、毛茛科（Ranunculaceae）、杜鹃花科（Ericaceae）、豆科（Fabaceae）和菊科（Compositae）;有毒草本植物共计138种,是占比最多的生活型;有毒部位中全株或全草有毒的最多,共有109种;在毒性方面,只有3种剧毒植物和5种大毒植物,小毒植物有50种,中毒植物最多,有184种;有毒蜜源植物有19种,以玄参科（Scrophulariaceae）和毛茛科占优势;毒理作用方面,大多是神经系统中毒。南峰地区有毒植物资源种类丰富,但目前对这些资源的利用较少,要加强有毒植物认识与保护,进行合理开发利用。