Plant Growth Substances Produced by Azospirillum brasilense and Their Effect on the Growth of Pearl Millet (Pennisetum americanum L.)

Azospirillum brasilense, a nitrogen-fixing bacterium found in the rhizosphere of various grass species, was investigated to establish the effect on plant growth of growth substances produced by the bacteria. Thin-layer chromatography, high-pressure liquid chromatography, and bioassay were used to separate and identify plant growth substances produced by the bacteria in liquid culture. Indole acetic acid and indole lactic acid were produced by A. brasilense from tryptophan. Indole acetic acid production increased with increasing tryptophan concentration from 1 to 100 μg/ml. Indole acetic acid concentration also increased with the age of the culture until bacteria reached the stationary phase. Shaking favored the production of indole acetic acid, especially in a medium containing nitrogen. A small but biologically significant amount of gibberellin was detected in the culture medium. Also at least three cytokinin-like substances, equivalent to about 0.001 μg of kinetin per ml, were present. The morphology of pearl millet roots changed when plants in solution culture were inoculated. The number of lateral roots was increased, and all lateral roots were densely covered with root hairs. Experiments with pure plant hormones showed that gibberellin causes increased production of lateral roots. Cytokinin stimulated root hair formation, but reduced lateral root production and elongation of the main root. Combinations of indole acetic acid, gibberellin, and kinetin produced changes in root morphology of pearl millet similar to those produced by inoculation with A. brasilense.     

Identification of indole compounds secreted byFrankia HFPArI3 in defined culture medium

Indole compounds secreted byFrankia sp. HFPArI3 in defined culture medium were identified with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). WhenFrankia was grown in the presence of¹³C(ring-labelled)-L-tryptophan,¹³C-labelled indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), indole-3-ethanol (IEtOH), indole-3-lactic acid (ILA), and indole-3-methanol (IMeOH) were identified.High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and GC-MS with selected ion monitoring were used to quantify levels of IAA and IEtOH inFrankia culture medium. IEtOH was present in greater abundance than IAA in every experiment. When no exogenous trp was supplied, no or only low levels of indole compounds were detected.Seedling roots ofAlnus rubra incubated in axenic conditions in the presence of indole-3-ethanol formed more lateral roots than untreated plants, indicating that IEtOH is utilized by the host plant, with physiological effects that modify patterns of root primordium initiation.     

Effects of Cations on Hormone Transport in Primary Roots of Zea mays

We examined the influence of aluminum and calcium (and certain other cations) on hormone transport in corn roots. When aluminum was applied unilaterally to the caps of 15 mm apical root sections the roots curved strongly away from the aluminum. When aluminum was applied unilaterally to the cap and ³H-indole-3-acetic acid was applied to the basal cut surface twice as much radioactivity (assumed to be IAA) accumulated on the concave side of the curved root as on the convex side. Auxin transport in the apical region of intact roots was preferentially basipetal, with a polarity (basipetal transport divided by acropetal transport) of 6.3. In decapped 5 mm apical root segments, auxin transport was acropetally polar (polarity = 0.63). Application of aluminum to the root cap strongly promoted acropetal transport of auxin reducing polarity from 6.3 to 2.1. Application of calcium to the root cap enhanced basipetal movement of auxin, increasing polarity from 6.3 to 7.6. Application of the calcium chelator, ethylene-glycol-bis-(β-aminoethylether)-N,N,N′, N′-tetraacetic acid, greatly decreased basipetal auxin movement, reducing polarity from 6.3 to 3.7. Transport of label after application of tritiated abscisic acid showed no polarity and was not affected by calcium or aluminum. The results indicate that the root cap is particularly important in maintaining basipetal polarity of auxin transport in primary roots of corn. The induction of root curvature by unilateral application of aluminum or calcium to root caps is likely to result from localized effects of these ions on auxin transport. The findings are discussed relative to the possible role of calcium redistribution in the gravitropic curvature of roots and the possibility of calmodulin involvement in the action of calcium and aluminum on auxin transport.     

Activity of 1,2-benzisoxazole-3-one and indole-2,3-dione on plant regeneration in vitro and on cell elongation

We tested the morphogenetic and cell elongating activity of 1,2-benzisoxazole-3-one, a compound similar to 1,2-benzisoxazole-3-acetic acid but lacking the lateral carbon chain. For comparison, we tested also the activity of indole 2,3-dione, having the same indolic ring as indole 3-acetic acid but no lateral carbon chain. The tests were made on the regeneration of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Miller var. Alice) from cotyledons and on pea (Pisum sativum L. var. Alaska) stem elongation. We found that 1,2 benzisoxazole-3-one retains part of the high shoot inducing activity of 1,2-benzisoxazole-3-aceticacid, while indole-2,3-dione is inactive. Both compounds have no effect on root induction or cell elongation. It seems therefore that the activity of 1,2 benzisoxazole-3-acetic acid is partly related to the structure of its ring, and that also in this respect 1,2 benzisoxazole-3-acetic acid differs from other auxinlike compounds.Abbreviations BOA 1,2-benzisoxazole-3-acetic acid - BOO 1,2-benzisoxazole-3-one - IAA in-dole-3-acetic acid     

Role of cytokinin and auxin in shaping root architecture: regulating vascular differentiation, lateral root initiation, root apical dominance and root gravitropism

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Development and architecture of plant roots are regulated by phytohormones. Cytokinin (CK), synthesized in the root cap, promotes cytokinesis, vascular cambium sensitivity, vascular differentiation and root apical dominance. Auxin (indole-3-acetic acid, IAA), produced in young shoot organs, promotes root development and induces vascular differentiation. Both IAA and CK regulate root gravitropism. The aims of this study were to analyse the hormonal mechanisms that induce the root's primary vascular system, explain how differentiating-protoxylem vessels promote lateral root initiation, propose the concept of CK-dependent root apical dominance, and visualize the CK and IAA regulation of root gravitropiosm. KEY ISSUES: The hormonal analysis and proposed mechanisms yield new insights and extend previous concepts: how the radial pattern of the root protoxylem vs. protophloem strands is induced by alternating polar streams of high IAA vs. low IAA concentrations, respectively; how differentiating-protoxylem vessel elements stimulate lateral root initiation by auxin-ethylene-auxin signalling; and how root apical dominance is regulated by the root-cap-synthesized CK, which gives priority to the primary root in competition with its own lateral roots. CONCLUSIONS: CK and IAA are key hormones that regulate root development, its vascular differentiation and root gravitropism; these two hormones, together with ethylene, regulate lateral root initiation.     

Sites and regulation of auxin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis roots

Auxin has been shown to be important for many aspects of root development, including initiation and emergence of lateral roots, patterning of the root apical meristem, gravitropism, and root elongation. Auxin biosynthesis occurs in both aerial portions of the plant and in roots; thus, the auxin required for root development could come from either source, or both. To monitor putative internal sites of auxin synthesis in the root, a method for measuring indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) biosynthesis with tissue resolution was developed. We monitored IAA synthesis in 0.5- to 2-mm sections of Arabidopsis thaliana roots and were able to identify an important auxin source in the meristematic region of the primary root tip as well as in the tips of emerged lateral roots. Lower but significant synthesis capacity was observed in tissues upward from the tip, showing that the root contains multiple auxin sources. Root-localized IAA synthesis was diminished in a cyp79B2 cyp79B3 double knockout, suggesting an important role for Trp-dependent IAA synthesis pathways in the root. We present a model for how the primary root is supplied with auxin during early seedling development.     

Lateral root development in the maize (Zea mays) lateral rootless1 mutant

Background and Aims

The maize lrt1 (lateral rootless1) mutant is impaired in its development of lateral roots during early post-embryonic development. The aim of this study was to characterize, in detail, the influences that the mutation exerts on lateral root initiation and the subsequent developments, as well as to describe the behaviour of the entire plant under variable environmental conditions.

Methods

Mutant lrt1 plants were cultivated under different conditions of hydroponics, and in between sheets of moist paper. Cleared whole mounts and anatomical sections were used in combination with both selected staining procedures and histochemical tests to follow root development. Root surface permeability tests and the biochemical quantification of lignin were performed to complement the structural data.

Key Results

The data presented suggest a redefinition of lrt1 function in lateral roots as a promoter of later development; however, neither the complete absence of lateral roots nor the frequency of their initiation is linked to lrt1 function. The developmental effects of lrt1 are under strong environmental influences. Mutant primordia are affected in structure, growth and emergence; and the majority of primordia terminate their growth during this last step, or shortly thereafter. The lateral roots are impaired in the maintenance of the root apical meristem. The primary root shows disturbances in the organization of both epidermal and subepidermal layers. The lrt1-related cell-wall modifications include: lignification in peripheral layers, the deposition of polyphenolic substances and a higher activity of peroxidase.

Conclusions

The present study provides novel insights into the function of the lrt1 gene in root system development. The lrt1 gene participates in the spatial distribution of initiation, but not in its frequency. Later, the development of lateral roots is strongly affected. The effect of the lrt1 mutation is not as obvious in the primary root, with no influences observed on the root apical meristem structure and maintenance; however, development of the epidermis and cortex are impaired.     

Local and Systemic Regulation of Plant Root System Architecture and Symbiotic Nodulation by a Receptor-Like Kinase

In plants, root system architecture is determined by the activity of root apical meristems, which control the root growth rate, and by the formation of lateral roots. In legumes, an additional root lateral organ can develop: the symbiotic nitrogen-fixing nodule. We identified in Medicago truncatula ten allelic mutants showing a compact root architecture phenotype (cra2) independent of any major shoot phenotype, and that consisted of shorter roots, an increased number of lateral roots, and a reduced number of nodules. The CRA2 gene encodes a Leucine-Rich Repeat Receptor-Like Kinase (LRR-RLK) that primarily negatively regulates lateral root formation and positively regulates symbiotic nodulation. Grafting experiments revealed that CRA2 acts through different pathways to regulate these lateral organs originating from the roots, locally controlling the lateral root development and nodule formation systemically from the shoots. The CRA2 LRR-RLK therefore integrates short- and long-distance regulations to control root system architecture under non-symbiotic and symbiotic conditions.     

Reactive oxygen species localization in roots of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis thaliana</Emphasis> seedlings grown under phosphate deficiency

Arabidopsis plants responding to phosphorus (P) deficiency increase lateral root formation and reduce primary root elongation. In addition the number and length of root hairs increases in response to P deficiency. Here we studied the patterns of radical oxygen species (ROS) in the roots of Arabidopsis seedlings cultured on media supplemented with high or low P concentration. We found that P availability affected ROS distribution in the apical part of roots. If plants were grown on high P medium, ROS were located in the root elongation zone and quiescent centre. At low P ROS were absent in the elongation zone, however, their synthesis was detected in the primary root meristem. The proximal part of roots was characterized by ROS production in the lateral root primordia and in elongation zones of young lateral roots irrespective of P concentration in the medium. On the other hand, plants grown at high or low P differed in the pattern of ROS distribution in older lateral roots. At high P, the elongation zone was the primary site of ROS production. At low P, ROS were not detected in the elongation zone. However, they were present in the proximal part of the lateral root meristem. These results suggest that P deficiency affects ROS distribution in distal parts of Arabidopsis roots. Under P-sufficiency ROS maximum was observed in the elongation zone, under low P, ROS were not synthesized in this segment of the root, however, they were detected in the apical root meristem.     

Characterization of CYCLOPHILLIN38 shows that a photosynthesis-derived systemic signal controls lateral root emergence

Photosynthesis in leaves generates fixed-carbon resources and essential metabolites that support sink tissues, such as roots. Two of these metabolites, sucrose and auxin, promote growth in root systems, but the explicit connection between photosynthetic activity and control of root architecture has not been explored. Through a mutant screen to identify pathways regulating root system architecture, we identified a mutation in the Arabidopsis thaliana CYCLOPHILIN 38 (CYP38) gene, which causes accumulation of pre-emergent stage lateral roots. CYP38 was previously reported to stabilize photosystem II (PSII) in chloroplasts. CYP38 expression is enriched in shoots, and grafting experiments show that the gene acts non-cell-autonomously to promote lateral root emergence. Growth of wild-type plants under low-light conditions phenocopies the cyp38 lateral root emergence defect, as does the inhibition of PSII-dependent electron transport or Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) production. Importantly, these perturbations to photosynthetic activity rapidly suppress lateral root emergence, which is separate from their effects on shoot size. Supplementary exogenous sucrose largely rescued primary root (PR) growth in cyp38, but not lateral root growth. Auxin (indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)) biosynthesis from tryptophan is dependent on reductant generated during photosynthesis. Consistently, we found that wild-type seedlings grown under low light and cyp38 mutants have highly diminished levels of IAA in root tissues. IAA treatment rescued the cyp38 lateral root defect, revealing that photosynthesis promotes lateral root emergence partly through IAA biosynthesis. These data directly confirm the importance of CYP38-dependent photosynthetic activity in supporting root growth, and define the specific contributions of two metabolites in refining root architecture under light-limited conditions.

Lateral root emergence is regulated via systemic signaling that incorporates photosynthesis-dependent redox control and auxin biosynthesis.     

Light and decapitation effects on in vitro rooting in maize root segments

The effects of white light and decapitation on the initiation and subsequent emergence and elongation of lateral roots of apical maize (Zea mays L. cv LG 11) root segments have been examined. The formation of lateral root primordium was inhibited by the white light. This inhibition did not depend upon the presence of the primary root tip. However, root decapitation induced a shift of the site of appearance of the most apical primordium towards the root apex, and a strong disturbance of the distribution pattern of primordium volumes along the root axis. White light had a significant effect neither on the distribution pattern of primordium volumes, nor on the period of primordium development (time interval required for the smallest detectable primordia to grow out as secondary roots). Thus, considering the rooting initiation and emergence, the light effect was restricted to the initiation phase only. Moreover, white light reduced lateral root elongation as well as primary root growth.     

Die for living better: Plants modify root system architecture through inducing PCD in root meristem under severe water stress

Plant root development is highly plastic in order to cope with various environmental stresses; many questions on the mechanisms underlying developmental plasticity of root system remain unanswered. Recently, we showed that autophagic PCD occurs in the region of root apical meristem in response to severe water deficit. We provided evidence that reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation may trigger the cell death process of the meristematic cells in the stressed root tips. Analysis of BAX inhibitor-1 (AtBI1) expression and the phenotypic response of atbi1-1 mutant under the severe water stress revealed that AtBI1 and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response pathway modulate water stress-induced PCD. As a result, the thick and short lateral roots with increased tolerance to the stress are induced. We propose that under severe drought condition, plants activate PCD program in the root apical root meristem, so that apical root dominance is removed. In this way, they can remodel their root system architecture to adapt the stress environment.Key words: Arabidopsis, adaptation, PCD, root system architecture, water stressPlant shoot apical dominance is well known. The axillary buds are inhibited by the growing shoot apical meristem, and they would not grow until the shoot apical meristems are decapitated.¹ The same phenomenon has been found in the roots of dicot plants. Primary roots exhibit apical dominance over lateral roots and are able to penetrate deeply into the soil. Lateral root primordia were rapidly activated when primary root tips of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) were removed.² It is apparent that apical meristem activity in shoots and roots determines lateral organs and the shapes of above ground and root system architecture under normal conditions. Many plants have active meristematic activity in their shoot and root tips through their whole life resulting in indeterminate development of their shoots and primary roots, whereas others generate branches at certain developmental stages when the meristematic activity and apical dominance become low.It has long been known that plants modify their root morphology, orientation and increase root biomass to maximize water and nutrient absorption.^3,4 However, how the root morphology and architecture are changed in response to water shortage and what the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. Previously, it has been reported that plants, due to their sessile nature, have developed a very important adaptive mechanism, namely hydrotropism to avoid the damage caused by water shortage. Plant roots can sense the moisture gradient and grow toward to water or moisture when they are grown at conditions with non-uniform water distribution.⁵ Recently, we found another key mechanism through which plants can remove root apical dominance and remodel their root system architecture, thus to minimize the damage caused by a uniform severe water shortage condition.⁶Firstly, we found that growth rates of the Arabidopsis plants germinated on normal conditions were reduced when the concentrations of PEG in the growth media was increased, and primary roots of the stressed plants completely ceased growth when the PEG concentrations reached 40% (w/v) in the agar medium, a severe water stress. The results showed that growth cessation of the stressed plants was caused by PCD of the cells in the region of root apical meristems, and the cells underwent autophagic cell death upon the most severe water deficit. Secondly, we demonstrated that AtBI-1, a marker gene which plays a critical role in protecting the cells from ER stress-induced PCD in plants, mediates water stress-induced PCD of the root meristem. Further observation of ROS accumulation in the root tips upon to the severe water stress suggests that the high level of the ROS may disrupt the ER homeostasis and ROS may act as a signal to trigger the PCD. Importantly, we found that the occurrence of PCD of the meristematic cells of the stressed plants promoted the development of lateral roots. These short and tublized lateral roots grew slowly under severe water stress, but they could immediately become normal lateral roots and resume their elongation and after rehydration. Plant growth is subsequently restored to complete their entire life cycle. However, the lateral roots induced by decapitating primary root tips under normal conditions did not continue elongation like the stress induced lateral roots, and they cannot restore their growth after rehydration.Based on these results, we propose that plants can sense the severity of water stress, initiate autophagic PCD of meristematic cells in Arabidopsis root tips through ER stress signaling pathway and stimulate lateral root development (Fig. 1). Death of meristematic cells results in the loss of mitotic cell division activity in meristem and eventual root meristem function. The outcome of PCD caused-loss of root meristem activity is same as the surgical removal of apical root tips. In both cases, lateral root primordia are activated and lateral root emergence is promoted. However, the main difference between water stress induced-loss of root meristem function and surgical decapitation of root tips is that the former induces lateral roots with enhanced stress tolerance plays key roles in post-stress recovery, whereas the latter promotes development of lateral roots do not alter stress response. This implicates that stress-induced loss of meristem function and subsequent occurrence of specified lateral roots are adaptive mechanisms for plants to cope with the severe water stress. In other words, plants induce cell death of root meristem for living better.Open in a separate windowFigure 1A simplified model depicting the role of PCD in root meristem in plastic development of root system architecture in response to water stress.It is known that auxin distribution and maxima play key roles in lateral root initiation and emergence.^7–10 Alteration in auxin polar transport has been proposed as the main reason of decapitation induced lateral root development.¹¹ It is conceivable that auxin is also involved in stress induced-lateral root formation and development, but it is clear that interplay between stress signaling cascades and developmental signalings occurs after perception of the stress signals by plant cells resulting in root system development remodeling. These findings provide novel insights into mechanisms of plants to adapt to the uniform severe water stress at organ, cellular and molecular levels. However, the research of plastic development of root system in response to water stress is still in its infancy. Combinatorial strategies for the investigation of stress induced-PCD of root meristematic cells and subsequent lateral root development will help to uncover the molecular mechanisms underlying this positive response of plants in response to severe water stress. In particular, further study of auxin redistribution under water stress and interaction between auxin and stress hormone signalings in remodeling root system architecture will further our understanding of how developmental plasticity of plant root system is regulated. The results will facilitate the improvement of drought tolerance in crops.     

Analysis of Indole-3-acetic Acid Metabolism in Zea mays Using Deuterium Oxide as a Tracer

A method using deuterium oxide (D₂O) as a tracer was used to study indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) metabolism in Zea mays seedlings. Seeds were imbibed and grown for 4 days in 30% D₂O in the dark. IAA was then isolated from roots and shoots and analyzed for deuterium content by mass spectrometry. We found that a significant portion of the IAA isolated from plants had incorporated deuterium at nonexchangeable sites of the indole ring. This indicates that some of the IAA in the germinating seedling is made via de novo indole synthesis. Moreover, we found that the deuterium content of IAA was 2.6 times greater in shoots than in roots. These results indicate that at least some of the IAA in roots and shoots came from different biosynthetic pathways. It appears that the fraction of IAA produced via de novo indole synthesis is greater in shoots than in roots.     

Thiophene accumulation in relation to morphology in roots of Tagetes patula

Roots of marigold (Tagetes patula L.) accumulate thiophenes, heterocyclic sulfurous compounds with strong biocidal activity. In detached roots cultured in vitro, the thiophene content was 5 mol·(g fresh weight)^-1 which is 25-times higher than in roots attached to the plant. In roots derived from tissues transformed by Agrobacterium tumefaciens and A. rhizogenes, the morphology and thiophene content varied with the bacterial strain used. Transformation stimulated the elongation of the root tips and the formation of lateral roots but lowered the thiophene level to 20–50% relative to the concentration in untransformed detached roots. A negative correlation was found between the number of laterals in a root system and the thiophene content. Extensive branching and a decrease in thiophene accumulation was evoked in untransformed roots by indole-3-acetic acid (1–10 mol·l^-1) added to the medium. Within the roots, the highest thiophene concentrations were found in the tips. The results indicate that auxin directly or indirectly plays a role in the regulation of the thiophene level in root tips.Abbreviations B5 Gamborg's B5 medium - IAA Indole-3-acetic acid     

The Importance of Roots in Regulating the Senescence of Soybean Primary Leaves

The role of roots in regulating primary leaf senescence of 14-day-old soybean seedlings was investigated. Compared with intact seedlings, the senescence of primary leaves is accelerated by removal of the root system but delayed if apical bud and the first trifoliate leaf are removed. No difference in senescence was found between intact seedlings and seedlings without roots, apical bud, and first trifoliate leaf. Lateral roots seem to play a predominant role in regulating primary leaf senescence. However, neither root nodules nor primary root play any function in senescence. Results indicate that benzyladenine (BA) at optimal concentration (2 mg/1) completely replaces the roots to prevent the senescence of primary leaves, whereas gibberellic acid (GA) and abscisic acid (ABA) accelerate. The effect of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) to replace roots in preventing senescence depends on the season the young seedlings are grown. Additional, though indirect, information of acropetal transport of ABA is provided. In conclusion, it seems that cytokinins in lateral roots play a predominant role in leaf senescence and the normal supply of root cytokinins is important in leaf metabolism.     

The Effect of Pseudomonas putida Colonization on Root Surface Peroxidase

Increased activities of peroxidase and indole 3-acetic acid (IAA) oxidase were detected on root surfaces of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) seedlings colonized with a soil saprophytic bacterium, Pseudomonas putida. IAA oxidase activity increased over 250-fold and peroxidase 8-fold. Enhancement was greater for 6-day-old than for 4- or 8-day-old inoculated plants No IAA oxidase or peroxidase activities were associated with the bacterial cells. Native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis demonstrated that washes of P. putida-inoculated roots contained two zones of peroxidase activity. Only the more anodic bands were detected in washes from noninoculated roots. Ion exchange and molecular sizing gel chromatography of washes from P. putida-colonized roots separated two fractions of peroxidase activity. One fraction corresponded to the anodic bands detected in washes of P. putida inoculated and in noninoculated roots. A second fraction corresponded to the less anodic zone of peroxidase, which was characteristic of P. putida-inoculated plants. This peroxidase had a higher IAA oxidase to peroxidase ratio than the more anodic, common enzyme. The changes in root surface peroxidases caused by colonization by a saprophytic bacterium are discussed with reference to plant-pathogen interactions.     

Mycorrhiza alters the profile of root hairs in trifoliate orange

Root hairs and arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) coexist in root systems for nutrient and water absorption, but the relation between AM and root hairs is poorly known. A pot study was performed to evaluate the effects of four different AM fungi (AMF), namely, Claroideoglomus etunicatum, Diversispora versiformis, Funneliformis mosseae, and Rhizophagus intraradices on root hair development in trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata) seedlings grown in sand. Mycorrhizal seedlings showed significantly higher root hair density than non-mycorrhizal seedlings, irrespective of AMF species. AMF inoculation generally significantly decreased root hair length in the first- and second-order lateral roots but increased it in the third- and fourth-order lateral roots. AMF colonization induced diverse responses in root hair diameter of different order lateral roots. Considerably greater concentrations of phosphorus (P), nitric oxide (NO), glucose, sucrose, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and methyl jasmonate (MeJA) were found in roots of AM seedlings than in non-AM seedlings. Levels of P, NO, carbohydrates, IAA, and MeJA in roots were correlated with AM formation and root hair development. These results suggest that AMF could alter the profile of root hairs in trifoliate orange through modulation of physiological activities. F. mosseae, which had the greatest positive effects, could represent an efficient AM fungus for increasing fruit yields or decreasing fertilizer inputs in citrus production.     

Oligosaccharins and Pectimorf? stimulate root elongation and shorten the cell cycle in higher plants

The aim was to test promotive effects of oligosaccharins on root growth and development at the root apical meristem and the cell cycle using the model systems, Arabidopsis thaliana and the tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) BY-2 cell line. Arabidopsis was grown on medium supplemented with 0.1?mg L^?1 oligoxyloglucan (OX), 10?mg L^?1 Pectimorf^? (P) or 0.5?mg L^?1 indole butyric acid (IBA). Primary root length, number of lateral root primordia, root apical meristem (RAM) length and epidermal cell length were recorded. Three genotypes were used: wild type (WT) and transgenic lines expressing either Schizosaccharomyces pombe (Sp) cdc25 or over-expressing^(oe) Arath;WEE1. All treatments promoted primary root elongation but repressed lateral root production. Only P had a clear positive effect on meristem length whereas all other genotype?×?treatment interactions showed shorter RAMs. Whilst IBA, OX and P induced an increase in cell length in Spcdc25, the same treatments caused a significant decrease in WEE1 ^oe . Mitotic indices were also significantly higher in roots treated with oligosaccharins suggesting a shortening of the cell cycle. This hypothesis was tested in the BY-2 cell line. Both OX and P shortened the cell cycle exclusively through a shortening of G1 whilst mitotic cell size remained constant between treatments. In conclusion, both OX and P do indeed stimulate growth and shorten the cell cycle in higher plants and at the cellular level are able to reverse large and small cell size phenotypes normally exhibited by WEE1 ^oe and Spcdc25 genotypes, respectively.     

Transport of shoot- and cotyledon-applied indole-3-acetic acid to Vicia faba root

To clarify the participation of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) originatingfrom the shoot in root growth regulation and the mechanism ofIAA translocation from shoot to root, the movement of ¹⁴C-IAAwhich was applied to the epicotyl or the cotyledon of Viciafaba seedlings was investigated. The radioactivity of IAA appliedto the cotyledon moved faster to the root tip than that appliedto the epicotyl. On the basis of the effect of 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid on IAAmovement, a comparison with ¹⁴C-glucose movement and autoradiographicexamination, the nature of IAA movement was concluded to bepolar transport from the epicotyl to the basal part of the roots,while IAA movement from the epicotyl to the cotyledon, fromthe basal part of roots to the apical part, and from the cotyledonto the epicotyl and to the root took place in the phloem. Theradioactivity from ¹⁴C-IAA applied to the cotyledon accumulatedin lateral root primordia and vascular bundles. These factssuggest that IAA produced in cotyledons may participate in theregulation of Vicia root development. (Received December 21, 1979; )